Preferred name: Zizania latifolia
Authority: (Grisebach) Hance ex F. Mueller
Taxonomic position: Plantae: Magnoliophyta: Angiospermae: Commelinids: Poales: Poaceae: Ehrhartoideae
Other scientific names: Hydropyrum latifolium Grisebach, Zizania aquatica var. latifolia (Grisebach) Komarov, Zizania caduciflora Handel-Mazzetti, Zizania mezii Prodoehl
Common names in English: Manchurian wild rice
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EPPO Categorization: A2 list, List of Invasive Alien Plants (formerly)
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EPPO Code: ZIZLA

History of introduction and spread

Zizania latifolia is native to Eastern Siberia, and the Russian Far East (Afonin et al., 2008; Komarov, 1934; Tzvelev, 1976; Tzvelev & Probatova, 2019). In these areas, the species is distributed sporadically in the natural environment. Native populations of Z. latifolia are also distributed in the east of China along a wide stretch of latitudinal zones (21–50° N). The species can be found in the river basins of the Heilongjiang, Liaohe, Huanghe and Yangtze Rivers (Chen et al., 2017; Wagutu et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2016). Z. latifolia has been domesticated and is cultivated in China as an aquatic vegetable (Guo et al., 2007). At present, in China, Z. latifolia is cultivated on more than 60 000 ha (Xie et al., 2023).

In the invasive range, Z. latifolia is locally established in New Zealand in the North Island, namely in Northland, Auckland, Waikato, and Wellington (Freshwater Pests of New Zealand, 2020; New Zealand Plant Conservation Network, 2023). In North America, Z. latifolia is considered established in Hawaii on the islands of Kauai, likely on Oahu, and Hawaii Island. One location has been detected in Canada, British Columbia in 2004 where it is locally abundant in shallow tidal water along the edges of Widgeon Slough on Siwash Island (https://search.museums.ualberta.ca/12-116227).

In the EPPO region, Z. latifolia has been intentionally introduced as an aquatic ornamental since the turn of the 20th century. It was also intentionally introduced from the 1930s onwards in water reservoirs in countries of the former Soviet Union to provide habitat for biota in managed waterbodies (Dubyna et al., 2017). Zizania latifolia was reported in Belarus for the first time in 1966 (Dubovik et al., 2021). Zizania latifolia was planted in Lake Endla (Central Estonia) between 1953 and 1955 (Kuusk et al., 2003). This population is still present in this area (eElurikkus, 2023). In Lithuania, Z. latifolia was recorded in the Dotnuvėlė stream near the Akademija lake in the city of Akademija in 2006 (Liatukas & Stukonis, 2009). It is reported in other countries, e.g. Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, though the status of the species is unclear.

Zizania latifolia was first introduced in 1934 into the European part of Russia to provide habitat for biota in managed waterbodies (Maltseva & Bobrov, 2017; Morozova, 2014). The introduction of Z. latifolia into the Rybinsk Reservoir started in the late 1950s and in the Middle Volga region in 1957. At present, Z. latifolia can be found along a wide stretch of latitudinal zones (45–60° N). The species can be found in nine regions (oblasts) according to Vinogradova et al. (2018): Bryansk, Vladimir, Kaluga, Kostroma, Moscow, Yaroslavl, Krasnodar, Astrakhan and Volgograd. Starodubtseva et al. (2017) published a record of the species also in the Voronezh oblast region in a protected area (State federal level nature sanctuary Voronezhsky). Z. latifolia occurs e.g., in water reservoirs along the Volga River (Maltseva & Bobrov, 2017) and in lakes, such as Velikoe, Parovoe and Vashutinskoye (Belyakov et al., 2020; Belyakov & Garin, 2018). Z. latifolia is recorded in the Astrakhan State Biosphere Reserve (Afanasiev & Laktionov, 2008).

Zizania latifolia locally established in Belgium where it has been planted as a marsh plant along ponds and lakes (Verloove, 2011). It was first observed in 2009 on the margins of a pond near La Hulpe (https://waarnemingen.be/observation/44769819/), probably as a relic of former cultivation (ornamental use). There are few other observations thereafter (Verloove, 2011). Recently, there have been numerous reports of the species throughout Belgium, probably as a result of the species being included in the alert list of the LIFE RIPARIAS project (https://alert.riparias.be/) and an extensive population was recorded in 2023 along the River Leie near Ghent (pers. comm. I. Jacobs, 2024).

In France, Z. latifolia was introduced in the botanical garden of Paris (Jardin des Plantes). In 1914 it was grown in the Allier Department (Thiollets, Gorbier-Peublanc, near Jaligny) close to the bank of a lake. In 1919, it invaded all the surroundings of the lake, covering an area of 300 m in length and 3–4 m wide. Z. latifolia has been first recorded in the wild in October 2016 in the Pyrenees. Zizania latifolia was detected for the first time in Germany in Freiburg in Breisgau in 2018 on the shore of the lake Opfinger (Amarell, 2020). It is not known how this population was first introduced into the area. In 2023, the species covered at least 200 m of shoreline of this lake (pers. obs. S. Follak, 2023).

The history of introduction into other EPPO countries is less well detailed.

EPPO Region: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Estonia, France (mainland), Georgia, Germany, Ireland, Italy (mainland), Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Russia (Central Russia, European Russia, Far East, Southern Russia), Switzerland, Ukraine, United Kingdom
Asia: China (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shandong, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang), India (Assam, Manipur), Indonesia (Java), Japan, Kazakhstan, Korea Dem. People's Republic, Korea, Republic, Malaysia (Sabah), Mongolia, Myanmar, Singapore, Taiwan, Vietnam
North America: Canada (British Columbia), United States of America (Hawaii)
Oceania: New Zealand

Plant type

Perennial rhizomatous helophyte.

Description

Wild populations of Z. latifolia produce underground as well as surface stems (rhizomes) that form multiple tillers and enable vegetative propagation. Culms erect, 1–2.5 (4) m tall, rooting at lower nodes. Leaf sheaths thickened, leaf blades broadly linear, 50–90 cm long and 1.5–3.5 cm wide. Ligule triangular, 10–15 mm long. Inflorescences are panicles branching out multiple times either upwards or sideways, 30–50 cm long and 10–15 cm wide, lower branches with male spikelets, upper branches with female spikelets. Male spikelet 8–15 mm long; lemma elliptic-oblong, margin ciliate, awn 2–8 mm. Female spikelet 15–25 mm, lemma linear, awn 15–30 mm. Fruits are caryopses, approximately 10 mm (Flora of China, 2006). The seeds of Z. latifolia are sparsely arranged on the ear and mature at different times, after which they fall off easily. There is the potential for misidentification of between the Zizania species.

Images of Z. latifolia can be retrieved from the EPPO Global Database (EPPO, 2024a).

General

Zizania latifolia has phenotypic plasticity in morphology and shifts in reproductive strategy and biomass allocation enables it to survive flooding events (Wang et al., 2014). It shows high growth rates and shoot height (up to 4 m in height) with increasing flooding depth, as the species can develop faster stem elongation as a response to increasing water depth (Li et al., 2018). Its capacity to form uprooted floating mats in wetlands also improves its resilience to inundated conditions (Hong et al., 2018; Wen et al., 2023). The species can respond to water level fluctuation up to 5 m (Yang et al., 2020). The optimal water depth is 5–40 cm (Kwon et al., 2006; Li et al., 2018).

In the native range, Z. latifolia was reported to produce recalcitrant (desiccation-sensitive) seeds (Jin et al., 2005). In the introduced range, seed does not seem to play an important role in the life cycle of the species. In New Zealand, seedlings are not reported in the natural environment (pers. comm. P. Champion, 2024). Seed production may be very limited or absent in the introduced range as observed in Lithuania (Liatukas & Stukonis, 2009) or in Belgium (Verloove, 2011).

Habitats

Zizania latifolia grows in aquatic and riparian habitats, in particular wetland habitats (Notov, 2009; Ohwi, 1964; Seok et al., 2023). In the introcued range, it can also be found in roadside drainage ditches (Shaw & Allen, 2003) and can also infest damp paddocks and pastures (Arnold, 1959; Northland Regional Council, 2023). In New Zealand, Z. latifolia can invade lowland cropping habitats, especially sweet potato (pers. comm. P. Champion, 2024). In Hawaii, taro fields are also habitat for Z. latifolia (pers. comm. D. Frohlich, 2024). It can grow along waterlogged banks of large (e.g. Dnipro, Dniester, Ukraine; Volga, Russia) and small rivers (Dotnuvėlė, Lithuania) and coastal zones (estuaries) (Belyakov et al., 2020; Dvoretskiy, 2021; Liatukas & Stukonis, 2009; Maltseva & Bobrov, 2017; Zub & Prokopuk, 2020).

Environmental requirements

Zizania latifolia requires waterlogged soil conditions for germination and growth.

Data from China indicate that growth of Z. latifolia starts when average air temperatures are greater 5°C and that the strongest growth is at temperatures from 18 to 28°C (Yan et al., 2013; Ye et al., 2017). Zizania latifolia can withstand cold winter temperatures. In the EPPO region, the species occurs in countries with hard frost, such as Lithuania (e.g., Kėdainiai district), Estonia (Lake Endla), and Russia (Rybinsk). The area of the Rybinski reservoir appears to mark the northern limit of occurrence of the plant in the EPPO region.

Zizania latifolia is tolerant to brackish water (Tang et al., 2022) as it can grow in low salinity wetlands (salinity less than 15 mmol/L) (Tang et al., 2022). It is intolerant of high salinity, determining the downstream extent on the Northern Wairoa River (New Zealand) (Champion et al., 2001).

Natural enemies

There are no known natural enemies for Z. latifolia in the EPPO region. In Japan, there is evidence that water birds selectively forage on the rhizomes of the species leading to the spread of Z. latifloa due to dispersal of rhizome fragments (Ohkawara & Tajiri, 2023; Watanabe et al., 2008).

Uses and benefits

The species is utilized as an aquatic vegetable and medicinal plant with a long history of use in China and other countries in the East Asian region (Wu et al., 2023). The vegetable is imported into the EPPO region from China (pers. comm. J. van Valkenburg, 2024). No evidence has been found that Z. latifolia is cultivated as a vegetable in the EPPO region. It has ecological and economic value in nature (provides forage and shelter, purifies water etc.) (Wu et al., 2023).

Plants for planting is the main pathway for movement into and within the EPPO region. Z. latifolia can be utilized as an ornamental, for planting in the natural environment for ‘improving wildlife habitats’ (Maltseva & Bobrov, 2017; Dubyna et al., 2017; Liatukas & Stukonis, 2009; citing Fern, 1997). It has been planted for phytomeliorative/phytoremediation purposes (Chen et al., 2017; Tanner, 1996; Zhang et al., 2023; Zub & Prokopuk, 2020) and for erosion control (Chen et al., 2017; William & Champion, 2008; Wu et al., 2023) though not in the EPPO region.

There are historic references that Z. latifolia was used as an animal feed in France (Boite, 1887), though this is a historic pathway and nowadays it is very unlikely to be used for this purpose.

Effects on plants

In China, in its native range, Zhang et al. (2016) reported that due to the overgrowth of Z. latifolia, the submerged and emergent macrophytes (Vallisneria natans, Hydrilla verticillata, Phragmites australis, Typha angustifolia) previously present had nearly disappeared in Wuchang Lake. Wen et al. (2023) showed that the emergent community in the Lake Erhai (Yunnan Province) had changed from a P. australis, Typha orientalis and Acorus calamus dominant community to a Z. latifolia monodominant community over the past decades. In the Republic of Korea, Z. latifolia is reported as a weed in no-tillage rice production (Im et al., 2015).

In New Zealand, Champion et al. (2001) concluded that Z. latifolia displaces short-stature vegetation (essentially all non-woody species) and envelops taller individual indigenous plants (e.g., within Dacrycarpus dacrydioides swamp forest). These plants would be unable to produce progeny within the dense stand of Z. latifolia. It has been observed that Z. latifolia negatively impacts agricultural land in New Zealand (Arnold, 1959; Champion & Hofstra, 2010). The persistence of the species has changed farming practices. Some areas of sweet potato farming have been overtaken by Z. latifolia.

In the USA, Z. latifolia is considered a reservoir for pests such as the fungus Ustilago esculenta, which can potentially be transmitted to and threaten native Zizania species (e.g. Terrell & Batra, 1982; Watson et al., 1991).

In Russia, Z. latifolia has spread in the Volga Delta displacing other aquatic species (Afanasiev & Laktionov, 2008). It can dominate aquatic plant communities in southern regions (for example, Krasnodar territory, Samara oblast, etc.) and strongly compete with other species (Butomus umbellatus, Phragmites australis, Sparganium erectum, Typha angustifolia, T. latifolia) (Matveev & Zotov, 1973; Matveev & Soloviyova, 1997; Maltseva & Bobrov, 2017).

In Lithuania, the area covered by Z. latifolia has increased and it forms mono-dominant stands. Liatukas and Stukonis (2009) stated that “… [t]his new species was aggressive in out-competing other species, as the largest patches of Z. latifolia had only very few small spots [patches] of other species”.

In Ukraine, scientific investigation showed that Z. latifolia forms dense stands. The proportion of cover of Z. latifolia varies from 85% to 100 % (plants height ranges from 150 to 250 cm) (Dvoretskiy, 2021). In the Dniester Delta area, Z. latifolia can cause the disappearance of many other species, including those of wide ecological amplitude, particularly Phragmites australis (Dvoretskiy, 2021). Z. latifolia has significantly spread in the coastal part of the islands of the Dnieper Delta in recent years. Z. latifolia can change the structure of natural plant communities (Dubyna et al., 2017).

In Western Europe, observations show that Z. latifolia can form persistent monospecific stands along water bodies (Hollings & Hollings, 2006). Thus, it is likely that similar effects on biodiversity described outside of the EPPO region will occur within the EPPO region.

Environmental and social impact

Zizania latifolia builds persistent monospecific stands in invaded natural habitats and changes the composition of the flora and is considered an ecosystem engineer.

The species can impede water flow and increase the chance of flooding by blocking drains and water channels (William & Champion, 2008) leading to the degeneration of pastureland (Arnold, 1959; William & Champion, 2008).

The plant can colonize large areas of lakes and severely interfere with fishing due to blocking access to the open water (Jia et al., 2017; Li, 1996). Jia et al. (2017) also showed a gradual loss of open water in Lower Wuchang Lake due to the encroachment from Z. latifolia (varying cover from 9.68 km² [1992] to a maximum of 49.17 km² [2001]). This consequently led to financial losses from major reductions in fishing income (exact data is not available).

Control of the species is difficult, because of the large annual accumulation of biomass, its extensive underground root/rhizome system, and its ability to grow from small rhizome fragments and the inaccessibility of most populations.

In New Zealand, successful eradication of small to medium (~100 ha in area) populations has been achieved using the grass-specific herbicides (pers. comm. P. Champion, 2024).

Raising water levels in spring (March–May) during the species' germination period could be successful in reducing the area colonized within lakes (Jia et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2016).

Physical control can be effective at specific times (1) during the period when substantial self-thinning of shoots occurs (June–July) and (2) when the plant is mature but before senescence (September–October) Chandra and Tanaka (2006). However, this is a labour intensive and costly (Jia et al., 2017).

Mechanical diggers can be used to remove the plant from ditches, drainage channels and waterlogged riverbanks, but there is a high risk of transferring rhizome fragments to new sites (https://www.weedbusters.org.nz/what-are-weeds/weed-list/manchurian-rice-grass).

In the EPPO region, Z. latifolia is included on the EPPO A2 list of pests recommended for regulation as a quarantine pest.

In New Zealand, Z. latifolia is a ‘Pest of concern to New Zealand’ (Quarantine pest) (Ministry for Primary Industries, 2023). The species is an unwanted organism and notifiable organism under the Biosecurity Act 1993: propagation, spread, display and sale are prohibited. Z. latifolia is one of nine weed species managed by central government for national eradication under the National Interest Pest Response programme (https://www.mpi.govt.nz/biosecurity/exotic-pests-and-diseases-in-new-zealand/long-term-biosecurity-management-programmes/national-interest-pest-responses-programme/).

In Australia, Z. latifolia is on the National Priority List of Exotic Environmental Pests, Weeds and Diseases. Thus, it is considered as a species of ‘significant environmental and social amenity risk to Australia’ (https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/policy/environmental/priority-list). In Western Australia, Z. latifolia is a ‘Declared Pest, Prohibited - s12’. Prohibited organisms are declared pests by virtue of section 22(1) and may only be imported and kept subject to permits (https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/organisms/128909).

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This datasheet was produced following an expert working group that risk analysed Z. latifolia for the EPPO region in 2024. The composition of the expert working group was: E. Branquart (Service Public de Wallonie Agriculture, Ressources Naturelles et Environnement, BE), P. Champion (National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, NZ), D. Chapman (Stirling University, GB), S. Follak (AGES, AT), D. Frohlich (SWCA Environmental Consultants, US), Y Kulakova (All-Russian Plant Protection Center, RS), J van Valkenburg (NVWA, NL).

EPPO (2025) Zizania latifolia. EPPO datasheets on pests recommended for regulation. https://gd.eppo.int (accessed 2025-01-15)

This datasheet was first published in the EPPO Bulletin in 2024. It is now maintained in an electronic format in the EPPO Global Database. The sections on 'Identity' and 'Geographical distribution' are automatically updated from the database. For other sections, the date of last revision is indicated on the right.

EPPO (2024) Datasheets on pests recommended for regulation. Zizania latifolia L. EPPO Bulletin 53(3), 355-360.  https://doi.org/10.1111/epp.13044