S. dorsalis is reported to be highly polyphagous, feeding on more than 100 species in 40 different plant families.

Native host plants include various Fabaceae, such as Acacia, Brownea, Mimosa and Saraca. S. dorsalis is known as a pest on many crops including kiwi (Actinidia chinensis), Arachis, Capsicum, Citrus, cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa), grapevine (Vitis vinifera), Hevea brasiliensis, Hydrangea, mango (Mangifera indica), Nelumbo, onions (Allium cepa), Ricinus, Rosa, tamarinds (Tamarindus indica) and tea (Camellia sinensis). S. dorsalis is only cited as a significant pest of Citrus in Japan and Taiwan. However, members of the cryptic species complex may have reduced host ranges compared to the whole complex (Dickey et al., 2015).

Scirtothrips dorsalis life cycle includes 6 stages (egg, first and second instar larva, prepupa, pupa and adult) and it reproduces both sexually and parthenogenically (unfertilized eggs produce males). Development is directly influenced by temperature, moisture, and the type of host it is feeding on. S. dorsalis produces a highly variable number of generations per year, depending on the climatic conditions of the region. From four to eight generations in temperate areas of Japan according to Seal et al. (2010) but only three to four in nursery conditions at 25°C (Arthurs et al., 2013) or 14-18 generations per year projected by Holtz (2006), using a degree-day model in Florida. In Central Japan, adults overwinter in litter and soil, but also on leaves and branches (Okada, 1982) whereas in India, no diapause is observed (Toda et al., 2014). In Japan and South Korea overwintered adults become active from early March, and move to the leaf zone. After feeding on and laying eggs into new leaves, the adults of the first generation die between end of April and mid-May. The mean incubation time of S. dorsalis eggs is between 7 et 10 days (Tatara, 1994; Seal et al., 2010). Based on Tatara (1994), the developmental zero temperature and the maximum temperature threshold for the development from oviposition to adult emergence is 9.7 and 33.0°C, respectively with an accumulative temperature of 265 degree-days. Larvae and adults feed particularly on young, developing tissue including shoots, leaves, young fruit, and flowers. Pupae (a quiescent stage) are found in the leaf litter, in leaf axils, in curled leaves, or under the calyx of flowers and fruits. Because of the length of the oviposition period (about 13 days), from the third generation, there are overlapping generations. The combined larval and pupal periods ranged from 11 days to 13 days and the lifespan of females is about 19 days and slightly less for males (in laboratory conditions) (Seal et al., 2010).

Symptoms

In common with several other members of the genus, this species can cause major damage to infested plants. Leaves curl and exhibit characteristic silvering of the leaf surface and linear thickening of the leaf lamina (Kumar et al., 2021a) with premature senescence and abscission of leaves. Fruits have grey to black markings or distortion. These symptoms are often associated with brown frass markings on the leaves and fruits. On groundnuts (peanuts), dull yellowish-green patches form on the upper surface of leaves and brown necrotic areas and silvery sheen on the lower surfaces (Hodges et al., 2005). On celery, affected plants exhibited light to dark brownish scars on various parts. The leaves are discoloured and distorted (Kumar & Rachana, 2021). On Citrus, fruits show ring scarring around the stem and dark brown discolouring (Hyun et al., 2012). S. dorsalis is also a vector of plant viruses, for example the groundnut yellow spot virus, GYSV (Kumar et al., 2013) which has symptoms that include yellow chlorotic spots on partially/fully opened growing buds. The infected seedlings and leaflets are reduced in size (Gopal et al., 2010).

Morphology

The 108 species of the pantropical genus Scirtothrips are difficult to distinguish because they are small (about 1mm), and usually pale yellow or white in colour. Good slide-mounted specimens and the use of a differential interference microscope are recommended in order to observe minute details of structure, such as microtrichia and sculpture, that are essential for precise identification (Ng et al., 2014). The EPPO Diagnostic Protocol for S. aurantii, S. citri and S. dorsalis provides recommendations on how to detect and identify the pest (EPPO Standard PM 7/56, 2005).

Alternatively, molecular tools are available for diagnostics. Rugman-Jones et al. (2006) developed a molecular key to pestiferous Scirtothrips species (including S. dorsalis) based on the internal transcribed spacer regions 1 and 2 (ITS1 and ITS2) of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Toda et al. (2014) designed a multiplex PCR-based molecular test for two Japanese ‘strains’ by using the differences in their ITS2 sequences that correspond to four cryptic species according to Dickey et al. (2015). Seepiban et al. (2015) also described a procedure for the simultaneous identification of tospoviruses and thrips species (incl. S. dorsalis) based on testing of individual thrips.

Egg

The eggs are microscopic (0.075 mm long and 0.070 mm wide), smooth and reniform and creamy white.

Larva

Larvae are creamish white to almost white. The sizes of the first instars and second instars range between 0.37-0.39 and 0.68-0.71 mm respectively (Kumar et al., 2013). A key to differentiate the second instar of S. dorsalis among the most commonly encountered Western Palaearctic species (and also some species of quarantine interest) using a microscope (with phase contrast) is available (Vierbergen et al., 2010).

Pupa

Thrips are characterized in having two quiescent immature stages known as propupa and pupa between the larval and adult stages. Their size range between 0.55 and 0.80 mm (Duraimurugan & Jagadish, 2011; Seal et al., 2010). The propupa and pupa are yellow. Their antennal segmentation is reduced but the pupa has backward-curved antennae above its head. The mouth parts are non-functional. Wing pads can be seen in the propupa, reaching only up to the third abdominal segment, but are much longer in the pupa.

Adult

Members of the genus Scirtothrips are readily distinguished from all other Thripidae by the following characters: surface of pronotum covered with many closely spaced transverse striae; abdominal tergites laterally with numerous parallel rows of tiny microtrichia; sternites with marginal setae arising at posterior margin; metanotum with median pair of setae arising near anterior margin. The only closely similar genus is Drepanothrips (with only one species, D. reuteri), a native European pest of grapevine, but that has 6-segmented antennae instead of 8-segmented.

Detection and inspection methods

Because of their small size, their pale colour and their behavioural responses (thigmotaxis), Scirtothrips species are easily overlooked if the import inspection is carried out visually. Only heavily infested plants are likely to be detected by visual examination. However, high infestations are rarely the case in the context of import control. So the detection of thrips is more effective with the use of a Berlese funnel (thrips move down into the funnel to escape desiccation and are captured in a jar) allowing fast extraction of adults and larvae within 48h in port and airport facilities. A plastic cup trap (as described by Chu et al., 2006) can also collect intact S. dorsalis specimens. The use of coloured sticky traps, even if this system is easy to operate, is not recommended because thrips are difficult to extract and are often no longer recognizable.

For early detection of introductions, EFSA (2020) recommends surveillance in facilities that process imported commodities originating from areas where the pest is present, i.e. cut flowers, Vaccinium plants for planting, Camellia sinensis plants for planting and C. annuum fruit.

The potential of Scirtothrips spp. to move long distances is relatively limited by the size of adults, which move passively with air currents. Long distance spread is only expected through international trade of infested commodities (for example: plants for planting, fruits and vegetables as well as fresh cut flowers and foliage) that may go undetected. An incubation period of 6 or 7 days is also sufficiently long to allow S. dorsalis eggs in air cargo shipments from infested regions to airports in pest-free countries to pass through quarantine check points without detection (Seal et al., 2010). Moreover, interceptions in consignments from Africa or Asia are not rare (Anses, unpublished data, 2023; Holtz, 2006; Farris et al., 2010, EFSA 2014) and as highlighted by Dickey et al. (2015), several cryptic species within the complex appear to be invasive (see “Notes on taxonomy and nomenclature” for more details). Even if the risks of cross-border transport are considered as high for air passengers, crew and their baggage by Meissner et al. (2005), this means of dispersal is not documented elsewhere in the literature. The survival of adults on non-plant supports followed by a dispersal to a suitable host plant seems to be questionable.

The risk of movement with host fruit, vegetables, cut flowers/foliage depends mainly on the risk of transfer to host plants at destination. It is low when the commodities are distributed directly to the final consumer (e.g. fruits or leafy vegetables packed in the country of origin). There may be a risk of transfer if these products are stored in contact with plants for planting at destination, as may be the case for cut flowers that are sold in garden centres. Vegetables that are underground parts of host plants (e.g. potato or taro) are not considered as a pathway if no soil is attached to them.

Economic impact

In its principal range in Tropical Asia, S. dorsalis is mainly a serious pest of herbaceous plants: vegetables in Taiwan and Thailand, Capsicum, groundnuts and onions in India, cotton in India and Pakistan. It is also a pest of flowers, for example of roses in India. In Malaysia, it is a pest of the flowers and leaves of Hevea brasiliensis. S. dorsalis has become the foremost pest in Indian tea plantations (Deka et al., 2020) and infestation can result in 11-17% crop loss (Varatharajan et al., 2019). In Japan and Taiwan, Citrus (especially C. unshiu) is seriously affected (Tatara & Furuhashi, 1992) while in Iran, S. dorsalis is locally very abundant on Citrus (Minaei et al., 2015). In Japan and Australia, S. dorsalis is also a pest of grapevine (Shibao et al., 1991; Mound et al., 2022). It was also found in kiwi orchards In Japan, but without causing damage to the fruits (Sakakibara & Nishigaki, 1988). In 2020 large populations of S. dorsalis were reported near Perth in Western Australia causing considerable damage to rose plants, and in India, loss by thrips feeding on roses results in 28-95 % damage (Gahukar, 2003 in Sridhar & Naik, 2015). S. dorsalis has become one of the key pests causing economic damage to the fruit production of mango in Taiwan (Lin et al., 2015) greatly affecting the market price and export potential. According to Kumar & Rachana (2021), S. dorsalis causes economic damage in India to cassava, chilli (with yield loss up to 74% [Patel et al., 2009 in Kumar & Rachana 2021]), groundnut, rose, taro (Colocasia esculenta), and tea. In Florida, it has become an economically important pest of ornamental plants (Seal et al., 2010). An economic analysis performed in 2004 in the USA (Garret, 2004 in Holtz, 2006), based on a hypothesis of 5 percent crop yield loss to 28 hosts of S. dorsalis, would result in 3 billion USD in potential losses and up to 6 billion USD for a 10 percent crop yield loss. S. dorsalis is also an important vector of Orthotospoviruses (Mound et al., 2022) including chilli leaf curl virus (CLCV), Groundnut bud necrosis virus (GBNV), Groundnut chlorotic fan-spot virus (GCFSV), Groundnut yellow spot virus (GYSV), tobacco streak virus (TSV), Capsicum chlorosis virus (CaCV), Melon yellow spot virus (MYSV), Watermelon silver mottle virus (WSMoV) (Seal et al., 2010; Riley et al., 2011; Rotenberg et al., 2015).

Control

Current management of S. dorsalis is mainly based on chemical control (Kaur et al., 2023) and many studies highlight the efficacy of selected insecticides. Imidacloprid, spinetoram, thiamethoxam, fipronil, acetamiprid and spinosad are frequently reported as effective for reducing thrips populations (Seal et al. 2006; Patel & Kumar, 2017; Samota et al., 2017; Deka et al., 2020; Lahiri & Panthi, 2020; Panthi et al., 2020; Babu et al., 2021; Lakshmi & Kumar 2021). But numerous other active ingredients are used for the control of this pest in Southern India (buprofezin, indoxacarb, triazophos, tolfenpyrad, pymetrozine, etc.). However, application of certain products by growers on calendar basis may lead to the development of insecticide resistance (Kaur et al., 2023). In South-East Asia, resistance among populations of S. dorsalis is documented to various insecticide modes of action, including organophosphates, organochlorines and carbamates (Seal & Kumar, 2010). Recent results of Kaur et al. (2023) also indicate potential emergence of resistance to several newer active substances from the spinosyn, diamide and neonicotinoid families.

Biological control can be used as an alternative strategy for the control of thrips and there are many examples of successful biological control, but few studies relating directly on S. dorsalis. The potential use of mycoinsecticides on vegetables or ornamental plants has been assessed for this species by different authors, in laboratory conditions, in greenhouses tests or in field trials, with a high variability of results (Seal & Kumar, 2010; Arthurs et al., 2013; Panyasiri et al., 2022). For example, in greenhouses, environmental conditions (high humidity and low UV exposure) can be manipulated to favour entomopathogenic fungi while in fields, regular rainfall may wash away the fungal suspension. Heterorhabditis indica (Nematoda: Rhabditida) or Thripinema spp. (Nematoda: Tylenchida) are entomopathogenic nematodes reported to effectively control field populations of S. dorsalis according to Jagdish & Purnima (2011) and Kumar et al. (2021a). But reliable results are lacking in the literature, and their effectiveness has yet to be consolidated by additional results. Predatory mites have been used against some thrips species in greenhouse vegetables and ornamentals for many years with some success and more recently on S. dorsalis. The efficacy of Amblyseius swirskii is considered as more effective than Neoseiulus cucumeris on peppers by Arthurs et al. (2009) and Doğramaci et al. (2011) confirmed that A. swirskii is an effective predator. Other candidate predators include anthocorid and mirid bugs, syrphids, some gall midges, lacewing larvae, spiders, sphecid wasps, predatory thrips and pseudoscorpions (Holtz, 2006; Varatharajan et al., 2019). But further studies are required before any attempt is made of augmentation and conservation of predators in IPM programmes. Almost nothing is known about parasitoids of S. dorsalis. The egg parasitoid Megaphragma sp. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) was reported in Japan by Shibao et al. (2000) as not effective for controlling the population density of S. dorsalis on grapes. Some larval endoparasitoids of the eulophid family are also listed by Varatharajan et al. (2019) from India but their effect on S. dorsalis populations is not documented.

Phytosanitary risk

S. dorsalis is mainly a tropical species, but its occurrence in citrus-growing areas with a subtropical climate suggests that it could possibly establish on citrus in Southern Europe and the Mediterranean area, as this was confirmed by the recent introduction of S. dorsalis in Southern Spain in 2017. Based on niche modelling, de Aguiar et al. (2023) estimated the potential projected suitability in Europe as low, probably due to low temperatures. However, the model projected at risk areas in Portugal, the west coast of Spain, South-West France, a coastal region from Croatia to Greece, and the west coast of Turkey and surprisingly the west coast of the United Kingdom. The host range of S. dorsalis includes a number of vegetable crops, and the possibility of introduction onto glasshouse crops in Europe should be considered. The EFSA Panel on Plant Health (2014) highlighted that there are three main pathways for introduction of S. dorsalis into the EU: plants intended for planting, cut flowers and fruits and vegetables of host species. They noted that host plants are very widely distributed in the EU and therefore do not represent a limiting factor for its establishment.

Importation of Citrus plants for planting is prohibited or restricted in many EPPO countries to prevent introduction of important pests. However, S. dorsalis could be introduced with other plant species, as it is very polyphagous, and adults may be found on plants on which they may not complete their full life cycle. To prevent introduction of the pest, plants for planting should either be dormant (i.e., without leaves) with no growing medium attached or come from a pest-free area or a pest-free place of production. An insecticide treatment before shipping may also be an option.

Appropriate measures should be applied to host fruit, vegetables, cut flowers/foliage to ensure that they are pest-free.

In case of a rapid detection after an introduction under protected conditions, the chance of eradication would be high by using phytosanitary measures including prohibition of movement of plants within and out of the place of production, and the destruction of the lot with the infested plants. The prospects are better if the species cannot survive outdoors.

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This datasheet was extensively revised in 2023 by Philippe Reynaud, Anses, FR. His valuable contribution is gratefully acknowledged.

This datasheet was first published in 1997 in the second edition of 'Quarantine Pests for Europe', and revised in 2023. It is now maintained in an electronic format in the EPPO Global Database. The sections on 'Identity', ‘Hosts’, and 'Geographical distribution' are automatically updated from the database. For other sections, the date of last revision is indicated on the right.

CABI/EPPO (1997) Quarantine Pests for Europe (2^nd edition). CABI, Wallingford (GB).