Preferred name: Spodoptera frugiperda
Authority: (Smith)
Taxonomic position: Animalia: Arthropoda: Hexapoda: Insecta: Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
Other scientific names: Laphygma frugiperda (Smith)
Common names in English: corn leaf worm (US), fall armyworm (US), grass worm, southern grass worm
view more common names online...
Notes on taxonomy and nomenclature EPPO Categorization: A2 list
EU Categorization: Emergency measures, A1 Quarantine pest (Annex II A)
view more categorizations online...
EPPO Code: LAPHFR

Spodoptera frugiperda is a polyphagous pest with a host range (observed in the Americas) of 353 plants belonging to 76 families, mainly Poaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae (Montezano et al., 2018). The greatest damage is observed in grasses, particularly maize and sorghum, which are the main hosts, along with other crops, such as rice, cotton and soybean (Casmuz et al., 2010; Montezano et al., 2018). In addition to crop species the pest also attacks ornamental plants (such as chrysanthemums, carnations, geraniums) and weeds (Montezano et al., 2018). Non-crop species are particularly important as they maintain pest populations in the environment during the non-cropping season and outside the cropping areas (Montezano et al., 2018). In recently invaded countries in Africa and Asia the pest damages mainly maize and, to a lesser degree, sorghum, sugarcane, and other crops (Vennila et al., 2019).

Host list: Abelmoschus esculentus, Acacia mearnsii, Acalypha sp., Acanthospermum hispidum, Ageratum conyzoides, Agrostis gigantea, Agrostis hyemalis, Agrostis stolonifera, Alcea rosea, Allium cepa, Allium fistulosum, Allium sativum, Aloe vera, Alternanthera ficoidea, Amaranthus dubius, Amaranthus hybridus, Amaranthus quitensis, Amaranthus spinosus, Amaranthus viridis, Andropogon leucostachyus, Andropogon virginicus, Arachis hypogaea, Arachis pintoi, Asclepias sp., Asparagus officinalis, Asplenium nidus, Aster sp., Atropa belladonna, Avena byzantina, Avena sativa, Avena strigosa, Axonopus compressus, Axonopus fissifolius, Baccharis dracunculifolia, Baccharis neglecta, Begonia rex, Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris var. cicla, Beta vulgaris, Bidens alba, Bidens pilosa, Boerhavia erecta, Bothriochloa pertusa, Brachiaria plantaginea, Brachiaria platyphylla, Brassica napus, Brassica oleracea var. botrytis, Brassica oleracea var. capitata, Brassica oleracea var. italica, Brassica oleracea var. viridis, Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis, Brassica rapa, Briza lamarckiana, Briza minor, Bromus catharticus, Brugmansia x candida, Cajanus cajan, Calendula officinalis, Campanula sp., Canavalia ensiformis, Capsicum annuum, Carduus sp., Carex sp., Carica papaya, Carissa sp., Carthamus tinctorius, Carya illinoinensis, Celosia argentea, Celtis iguanaea, Cenchrus americanus, Cenchrus clandestinus, Cenchrus echinatus, Cenchrus purpureus, Cenchrus spinifex, Cenchrus tribuloides, Cereus hildmannianus, Chamaerops humilis, Chenopodium album, Chenopodium quinoa, Chloris barbata, Chloris gayana, Chrysanthemum x morifolium, Chusquea lorentziana, Cicer arietinum, Cichorium endivia, Cichorium intybus, Cipura campanulata, Citrullus lanatus, Citrus reticulata, Citrus x aurantium var. paradisi, Citrus x aurantium var. sinensis, Citrus x aurantium var. unshiu, Citrus x aurantium, Citrus x limon, Cocos nucifera, Codiaeum variegatum, Coffea arabica, Commelina benghalensis, Commelina diffusa, Commelina erecta, Convolvulus arvensis, Corchorus capsularis, Corchorus olitorius, Coriandrum sativum, Cortaderia selloana, Crotalaria breviflora, Crotalaria juncea, Crotalaria spectabilis, Croton capitatus, Cucumis melo, Cucumis sativus, Cucurbita argyrosperma, Cucurbita maxima, Cucurbita pepo, Cydonia oblonga, Cynara cardunculus, Cynara scolymus, Cynodon dactylon, Cynodon nlemfuensis, Cynodon plectostachyus, Cyperus compressus, Cyperus esculentus, Cyperus papyrus, Cyperus retrorsus, Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus sesquiflorus, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Dahlia pinnata, Daucus carota, Daucus pusillus, Desmodium adscendens, Dianthus caryophyllus, Dichanthium aristatum, Digitaria aequiglumis, Digitaria ciliaris, Digitaria connivens, Digitaria didactyla, Digitaria eriantha, Digitaria horizontalis, Digitaria ischaemum, Digitaria pseudodiagonalis, Digitaria sanguinalis, Diospyros kaki, Echinochloa colonum, Echinochloa crus-galli, Elaeis guineensis, Eleusine coracana, Eleusine indica, Eleusine tristachya, Elymus repens, Eragrostis airoides, Erechtites hieraciifolius, Erechtites valerianifolius, Eremochloa ophiuroides, Erigeron canadensis, Eriochloa polystachya, Eryngium foetidum, Eryngium horridum, Eryngium megapotamicum, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus robusta, Eucalyptus urophylla, Eustachys distichophylla, Fagopyrum esculentum, Festuca arvernensis, Fevillea cordifolia, Ficus carica, Fimbristylis littoralis, Fragaria chiloensis, Fragaria vesca, Fragaria x ananassa, Geranium sp., Gerbera jamesonii, Gladiolus x gandavensis, Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Helianthus annuus, Hemarthria altissima, Hevea brasiliensis, Hibiscus cannabinus, Hordeum vulgare, Ilex paraguariensis, Impatiens walleriana, Ipomoea aquatica, Ipomoea batatas, Ipomoea grandiflora, Ipomoea purpurea, Ipomoea triloba, Jatropha curcas, Juglans regia, Kummerowia striata, Lactuca sativa, Lagerstroemia, Leea coccinea, Leonurus japonicus, Lepidium didymum, Leptochloa mucronata, Lespedeza bicolor, Lespedeza thunbergii, Linum usitatissimum, Lolium arundinaceum, Lolium multiflorum, Luffa aegyptiaca, Lupinus albus, Malpighia glabra, Malus domestica, Mangifera indica, Manihot esculenta, Maranta arundinacea, Maranta leuconeura, Medicago sativa, Megathyrsus maximus, Melicoccus bijugatus, Melilotus officinalis, Melinis minutiflora, Melinis repens, Melissa officinalis, Mirabilis jalapa, Miscanthus x giganteus, Mitracarpus hirtus, Mucuna deeringiana, Muehlenbeckia sagittifolia, Musa sp., Musa x paradisiaca, Nicotiana tabacum, Ocimum basilicum, Onosmodium virginianum, Oryza latifolia, Oryza sativa, Oxalis divaricata, Oxalis eriocarpa, Pandanus sp., Panicum dichotomiflorum, Panicum laxum, Panicum miliaceum, Panicum virgatum, Pascalia glauca, Paspalum conjugatum, Paspalum cromyorhizon, Paspalum dilatatum, Paspalum distichum, Paspalum exaltatum, Paspalum fimbriatum, Paspalum notatum, Paspalum pumilum, Paspalum stellatum, Paspalum urvillei, Paspalum vaginatum, Passiflora alata, Passiflora edulis, Passiflora laurifolia, Pavonia cancellata, Pelargonium x hortorum, Persea americana, Phalaris angusta, Phalaris canariensis, Phaseolus lunatus, Phaseolus vulgaris, Philodendron cordatum, Phleum pratense, Phoenix roebelenii, Phytolacca sp., Pinus caribaea, Piper sp., Pisum sativum, Pittosporum tobira, Plantago tomentosa, Platanus occidentalis, Plumeria rubra, Poa annua, Poa pratensis, Pontederia crassipes, Portulaca oleracea, Prunus persica, Psidium guajava, Pueraria montana var. lobata, Pyrus communis, Raphanus raphanistrum, Raphanus sativus, Richardia grandiflora, Ricinus communis, Rosa sp., Rumex crispus, Saccharum angustifolium, Saccharum officinarum, Schizachyrium tenerum, Secale cereale, Sechium edule, Senecio brasiliensis, Senna obtusifolia, Sesamum indicum, Setaria italica, Setaria parviflora, Setaria viridis, Sida cordifolia, Sida rhombifolia, Sidastrum paniculatum, Solanum aethiopicum, Solanum dulcamara, Solanum lycopersicum, Solanum macrocarpon, Solanum melongena, Solanum sisymbriifolium, Solanum tuberosum, Sonchus oleraceus, Sorghum arundinaceum, Sorghum bicolor, Sorghum halepense, Sorghum x drummondii, Spathoglottis plicata, Spermacoce latifolia, Spinacia oleracea, Sporobolus indicus, Stachytarpheta cayennensis, Stenotaphrum secundatum, Stylosanthes guianensis, Talinum paniculatum, Tanacetum cinerariifolium, Taraxacum officinale, Terminalia catappa, Thalia geniculata, Theobroma cacao, Tradescantia pallida, Tragopogon porrifolius, Trianthema portulacastrum, Trifolium incarnatum, Trifolium polymorphum, Trifolium pratense, Trifolium repens, Triticum aestivum, Urera aurantiaca, Urochloa arrecta, Urochloa brizantha, Urochloa eminii, Urochloa fusca, Urochloa mutica, Urochloa ramosa, Urochloa texana, Vaccinium corymbosum, Vaccinium macrocarpon, Vaccinium oxycoccos, Verbascum virgatum, Vernicia fordii, Vicia faba, Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis, Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata, Vigna unguiculata, Viola sp., Vitis vinifera, Wisteria sinensis, Xanthium orientale subsp. italicum, Yucca gigantea, Zea luxurians, Zea mays, Zea mexicana, Zebrina pendula, Zingiber officinale, Zoysia sp.

S. frugiperda is native to tropical-subtropical areas of the Americas and during summer it migrates into southern and northern temperate American regions (Sparks, 1979). The pest was first reported in West Africa in 2016 (IITA, 2016), and over the next two years it spread throughout sub-Saharan Africa, and then reached Egypt in 2019 (Vennila et al., 2019). In 2018, S. frugiperda was reported in India, rapidly spreading all over the country with the exception of the northernmost provinces (Repalle et al., 2020). In the same year it was also reported in Yemen, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and more recently (2019), in China, South Korea, Japan (Vennila et al., 2019), Pakistan (Naeem-Ullah et al., 2019), Laos (FAO, 2019), Philippines (IPPC, 2019), Indonesia (EPPO, 2019), and Vietnam (USDA GAIN report, 2019). During the first months of 2020 it was captured in traps from the islands of Saibai and Erub in Torres Strait (IPPC, 2020) and in mainland Australia (Queensland Government, 2020).

EPPO Region: Cyprus, Greece (mainland, Kriti), Israel, Jordan, Portugal (Madeira), Romania, Spain (Islas Canárias), Türkiye
Africa: Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Congo, Democratic republic of the, Cote d'Ivoire, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Reunion, Rwanda, Sao Tome & Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China (Anhui, Aomen (Macau), Beijing, Chongqing, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanghai, Shanxi, Sichuan, Xianggang (Hong Kong), Yunnan, Zhejiang), East Timor, India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Odisha, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal), Indonesia (Java, Kalimantan, Nusa Tenggara, Sumatra), Israel, Japan (Kyushu), Jordan, Korea, Republic, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Syria, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, Yemen
North America: Canada (Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Québec, Saskatchewan), Mexico, United States of America (Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming)
Central America and Caribbean: Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Montserrat, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, St Kitts-Nevis, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Virgin Islands (British), Virgin Islands (US)
South America: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil (Amapa, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Espirito Santo, Goias, Maranhao, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Para, Paraiba, Parana, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, Roraima, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, Tocantins), Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela
Oceania: Australia (New South Wales, Northern Territory, Queensland, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia), New Caledonia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu

S. frugiperda is a highly fecund species, 900-1000 eggs can be laid by each female in tight clusters of 100-300 usually covered with a protective layer of abdominal bristles (Johnson, 1987). Usually egg-masses are stuck on the underside of leaves, however, at high population densities almost any surface can be used (Sparks, 1979). On maize, the young larvae feed together deep in the whorl, causing a characteristic skeletonizing or 'windowing' effect. In following instars larval behaviour changes, larvae become cannibalistic (Chapman et al., 1999) and disperse onto neighbouring plants, thus only very few older larvae per plant are typically found (Pannuti et al., 2016). After six (or five) larval instars, larvae pupate inside a loose cocoon in an earthen cell, or rarely between leaves on the host plant. Adults emerge at night, and they can fly for many kilometres before laying eggs, sometimes migrating for long distances (Cock et al., 2017). The development period from egg to adult depends on host species (Silva et al., 2017) and temperatures, ranging from 71 days at 18°C to 20 days at 32°C on maize (Du Plessis et al., 2020). S. frugiperda is a tropical species, adapted to warmer climates and not able to enter diapause (Barfield & Ashley, 1987), hence, its geographic distribution is closely dependent on climate conditions (Garcia et al., 2018). Its optimal temperature range for egg-to-adult development is between 26 and 30°C, with a minimum threshold of about 12 °C (Du Plessis et al., 2020) and an upper temperature threshold of 38-40°C (Barfield & Ashley, 1987). In areas where winter temperatures as low as 10 °C are rare, S. frugiperda can breed year round, with four to six generations per year, while in colder regions only one to two generations occur and populations migrate to overwinter in warmer and mild areas (Westbrook et al., 2016; Jeger et al., 2017).

Two strains of S. frugiperda, distinguishable only by molecular methods, are known: the maize and rice strains (Pashley et al., 1985). These strains are widely distributed in the native range (Ríos-Díez et al., 2012), where they show different host plant preference (rice strain: grasses and rice; maize strain: maize, sorghum, and cotton), as well as, different dispersal patterns and different susceptibility to pesticides (Pashley, 1988; Pashley et al., 1992; Ríos-Díez et al., 2012). In Africa, India, Myanmar, and China both strains are reported (Ramasamy et al., 2018; Swamy et al., 2018; Assefa, 2019; Nagoshi, 2019; Liu et al., 2019), and the presence of an inter-strain hybrid has recently been suggested (Nagoshi et al., 2019; 2020). 

Symptoms

Maize leaves are eaten and the whorl (funnel) may be a mass of holes, ragged edges and larval frass. Young larvae skeletonize the leaf lamina. Plants up to 30 days old can be cut through at the base by large larvae. Older plants may have the cobs attacked by larvae boring through the kernels. On tomato plants, buds and growing points may be eaten and fruits pierced. At high densities, large larvae disperse in swarms, but they often remain on wild grasses, if available (CABI, 2020).

Morphology

Eggs

Subspherical in shape (0.45 x 0.35 mm), stuck on the underside of leaves in groups of 100-300, sometimes in two layers. The egg mass is usually covered with a protective, felt-like layer of grey-pink scales (setae) from the female abdomen. Up to 1000 eggs may be laid by each female.

Larva

On hatching they are green with black lines and spots, and as they grow, they either remain green or become buff-brown and have black dorsal and spiracular lines. If crowded (by a high population density and food shortage) the final instar can be almost black in its armyworm phase. Fully grown larvae are 35-40 mm in length. Large larvae are characterized by an inverted Y-shape in yellow on the head, black dorsal pinaculae with long primary setae (two each side of each segment within the pale dorsal zone) and four black spots arranged in a square on the last abdominal segment. There are usually six larval instars, occasionally five. A full description of the larvae is given in Crumb (1956). Diagnostic features are given by Levy & Habeck (1976), and good pictures are available in the EPPO Diagnostic protocol PM 7/124 (EPPO, 2015).

Pupa

A typical brown, shiny noctuid pupa, 18-20 mm in length.

Adult

A sturdy grey-brown moth with a wing-span of 32-38 mm; the forewings are grey to grey-brown in the female, but in the male they are darker with dark markings and pale streaks; the hindwings are white. Adults of S. frugiperda might be confused with those of S. exempta and S. littoralis. In S. frugiperda the veins of the hindwing are brown and distinct, and in the male forewing the pale orbicular stigma has a pronounced pale 'tail' distally. In the male genitalia the valve is almost rectangular and there is no marginal notch at the position of the tip of the harpe; the female bursa lacks a signum. Details of the African species of Spodoptera are given by Brown & Dewhurst (1975), and keys to moths of the genus Spodoptera in the Western Hemisphere are given by Todd & Poole (1980), and, more recently, a world revision of the genus was made by Pogue (2002; 2011).

Detection and inspection methods

Symptoms caused by the larvae are similar for most leaf-eating Lepidoptera. All stages of the pest can be detected visually, specimens can be collected directly from infested plants or with the aid of light traps and pheromone baited traps. 

The species can be identified both morphologically and molecularly. A reliable morphological identification is best carried out on adult stages. Morphological identification is less time-consuming than molecular identification, and in addition it can be done with relatively simple equipment and very few chemicals.  For morphological and molecular identification see the EPPO Diagnostic protocol PM 7/124 (EPPO, 2015).

This species has a strong flight capacity, adults were reported to fly 100 km per night (Johnson, 1987). the species is a regular annual migrant in the Americas, dispersing throughout the USA and flying up into southern Canada virtually every summer (Westbrook et al., 2016). The use of the pre-oviposition (maturation) period for widespread dispersal seems to be very effective. 

Larvae and pupae of S. frugiperda can be accidentally transported as contaminants of traded commodities, especially in parts of plants. In fact, larvae were intercepted in various occasions in Europe on vegetables or fruit from the Americas by air; and sometimes on herbaceous ornamentals (Seymour et al., 1985; Cock et al., 2017). In addition, the pest (adults or eggs) can travel as a stowaway on international flights. This is confirmed by the interceptions of S. frugiperda egg masses found in various parts of aircrafts coming from Central and South America (Cock et al., 2017).

Economic impact

Damage results from leaf-eating, and healthy plants usually recover quite quickly, but a large pest population can cause defoliation; the larvae then migrate to adjacent areas. Large larvae can cause extensive destruction of seedlings and young plants by cutting the stem. On larger plants the ears of maize may be attacked by larvae boring through the kernels; similarly, tomato fruits may be bored.

In the Americas the pest is considered an economically important pest of cultivated crops (Ellis, 2005), particularly maize, rice, sorghum, and sugarcane (Jeger et al., 2017): in the south-eastern states of the USA, during the period 1975-1983 it caused annual average yield loss of 60 million USD (Sparks, 1986) and in Brazil it is considered the most important pest of maize (IITA, 2016). In Kenya, losses of about a third of the annual maize production were estimated (De Groote et al., 2020). Recently S. frugiperda has been considered by FAO as a potential food chain threat for Africa, Asia and Oceania (FAO, 2020). Concerning the EPPO region, the area most suitable for the pest establishment is the far south of Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece and Cyprus, where it has been estimated that if the pest were to establish it could have four generations per year. In these areas, S. frugiperda could cause yield and quality losses in crops such as maize and rice (Jeger et al., 2017).

Control

On maize, if 5% of seedling plants are cut or 20% whorls of small plants (during the first 30 days) infested, insecticide application is recommended (King & Saunders, 1984); on sorghum the pest threshold level is regarded as one (or two) larvae per leaf whorl and two per head (Pitre, 1985). In some areas resistance to insecticides may be widespread and control can be difficult, therefore, rotation of pesticides with different modes of action is recommended to reduce risk of resistance development (Pitre, 1985; Abrahams et al., 2017; Kanno et al., 2020).

A large number of parasitic Hymenoptera, as larval parasitoids, have been reared from S. frugiperda, and many predators are recorded; thus it appears that natural control is usually of considerable importance. Natural levels of larval parasitism are often very high (20-70%), mostly involving braconid wasps and to a lesser degree pathogens (Wheeler et al., 1989; Rios-Velasco et al., 2011). In South America, egg parasitoids for S. frugiperda control are produced commercially, among them the egg parasitoid, Telenomus remus, seems the most promising for classical biological control (Abrahams et al., 2017). Virus-based biopesticides effective against the pest are available in the United States of America and Brazil (Abrahams et al., 2017).

Maize is being successfully bred for resistance to a wide range of pests, including S. frugiperda (Prasanna et al., 2018). Resistance has also been studied in other crops (Costa et al., 2019). Transgenic maize containing genes encoding delta-endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki have been used effectively for control of the pest in the Americas, however, the evolution of insect resistance is a major concern (Prasanna et al. 2018). Various botanical extracts have shown insecticidal properties against the pest, particularly Azadirachta indica extract (Sisay et al., 2019).

Several types of cultural control can be applied to help minimize pest populations. Cultural aspects can be important since vigorous plants will recover after partial defoliation, and various basic techniques can help to minimize damage and aid plant recovery. Cultural methods do not provide adequate control alone but play an important role in integrated control (Abrahams et al., 2017).

Phytosanitary risk

Due to its polyphagy the species can be found on almost all types of plant commodities, therefore, it could be introduced by plant trade to the EPPO region. In the past it was intercepted occasionally in Europe on imported plant material (Seymour et al., 1985), however, more recently an increase of its interceptions occurred; for example, 54% more interceptions were recorded in 2018 than in 2017 (DG for Health and Food Safety, 2019). Due to the strong flight capacity of S. frugiperda, this pest could further spread via natural dispersal from sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, S. frugiperda has a high reproductive potential, and it has proven to be highly adaptable to different environments.

S. frugiperda could enter the EPPO region through international trade. Being a polyphagous pest, it could arrive on several host plant products, however, pathway models indicate that peppers (Capsicum spp.) are the most likely, although they are not preferred hosts. Being that pepper is regulated and inspected upon entry into many countries (e.g. in the EU), further regulation is estimated to have a marginal effect. As regards the likelihood of entry of the pest by natural dispersal, if S. frugiperda continues to spread to North Africa, it could relatively easily enter southern European countries (particularly the Andalusia region in Spain and Sicily in Italy) through migration. There is no possibility to prevent entry via natural dispersal, the likelihood of entry via this pathway could only be mitigated through pest control in Africa (Jeger et al., 2018). In December 2019, the FAO launched the “Global Action for Fall Armyworm Control” (http://www.fao.org/fall-armyworm/en/) to ensure a coordinated global approach, favouring a combination of monitoring, early warning systems, as well as, sustainable pest control methods.

Abrahams P, Beale T, Cock M, Corniani N, Day R, Godwin J, Murphy S, Rochard G & Vos J (2017) Fall armyworm status. Impacts and control options in Africa: Preliminary evidence note. http://www.cabi.org/Uploads/isc/Dfid%20Faw%20Inception%20Report28apr2017final.pdf (last accessed 12/05/2020)

Ashley TR, Wiseman BR, Davis FM & Andrews KL (1989) The fall armyworm; a bibliography. Florida Entomologist 72, 152-202.

Assefa Y (2019) Molecular identification of the invasive strain of Spodoptera frugiperda (JE smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Swaziland. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 39, 73–78. 

Barfield CS & Ashley TR (1987) Effects of corn phenology and temperature on the life cycle of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). The Florida Entomologist 70, 110-116.

Brown ES & Dewhurst CF (1975) The genus Spodoptera (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in Africa and the Near East. Bulletin of Entomological Research 65, 221-262.

CABI (2020) Spodoptera frugiperda. In Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford (UK), CAB International. www.cabi.org/isc. (last accessed 12/05/2020)

Casmuz A, Juárez ML, Socías MG, Murúa MG, Prieto S, Medina S, Willink E. & Gastaminza G (2010) [Review of the host plants of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).] Revista de la Sociedad Entomológica Argentina 69, 209–231 (in Spanish).

Chapman JW, Williams T, Escribano A, Caballero P, Cave RD & Goulson D (1999) Age‐related cannibalism and horizontal transmission of a nuclear polyhedrosis virus in larval Spodoptera frugiperda. Ecological Entomology 24, 268-275.

Cock MJW, Beseh PK, Buddie AG, Cafá G & Crozier J (2017) Molecular methods to detect Spodoptera frugiperda in Ghana, and implications for monitoring the spread of invasive species in developing countries. Scientific Reports 7, 4103.

Costa EN, Evangelista BMD & Fernandes MG (2019) Antibiosis Levels to Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in cowpea commercial cultivars and landrace varieties. Journal of Economic Entomology 112, 1941–1945. 

Crumb SE (1956) The larvae of the Phalaenidae. US Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin No. 1135.

De Groote H, Kimenju SC, Munyua B, Palmas S, Kassie M & Bruce A (2020) Spread and impact of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith) in maize production areas of Kenya. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 292, 106804.

DG for Health and Food Safety (2019) Europhyt Interceptions 2018: Annual report. Publications Office of the European Union.

Du Plessis H, Schlemmer ML & Van den Berg J (2020) The effect of temperature on the development of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Insects 11, 228.

Ellis SE (2005) New Pest Response Guidelines: Spodoptera. USDA/APHIS/PPQ/PDMP. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/emergency/downloads/nprg_spodoptera.pdf (last accessed 12/05/2020)

EPPO (2015) PM 7/124 (1) Spodoptera littoralis, Spodoptera litura, Spodoptera frugiperda, Spodoptera eridania. EPPO Bulletin 45, 410–444. https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/LAPHFR/documents (last accessed 12/06/2020)

EPPO (2019) Spodoptera frugiperda continues to spread in Asia. In EPPO Reporting Service. https://gd.eppo.int/reporting/article-6483 (last accessed 12/05/2020)

FAO (2019) Report from consultative meeting on fall armyworm in Asia. Bangkok, March 20-22, 2019. [Link] (last accessed 12/05/2020)

FAO (2020) Forecasting threats to the food chain affecting food security in countries and regions. Food Chain Crisis Early Warning Bulletin 34.

Garcia AG, Ferreira CP, Godoy WAC & Meagher RL (2018) A computational model to predict the population dynamics of Spodoptera frugiperda. Journal of Pest Science 92, 429–441. 

IITA (2016) First report of outbreaks of the "Fall Armyworm" on the African continent. IITA Bulletin 2330, http://bulletin.iita.org/index.php/2016/06/18/first-report-of-outbreaks-of-the-fall-armyworm-on-the-african-continent/ (last accessed 12/05/2020)

IPPC (2019) Report of first detection of Fall Army Worm (FAW) in the Republic of the Philippines. IPPC Official Pest Report, PHL-02/1. FAO. https://www.ippc.int/ (https://www.ippc.int/) (last accessed 12/05/2020)

IPPC (2020) First detection of Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm) in Torres Strait. IPPC Official Pest Report, AUS-96/1. FAO. https://www.ippc.int/ (https://www.ippc.int/ (last accessed 12/05/2020)

Jeger M, Bragard C, Caffier D, Candresse T, Chatzivassiliou E, Dehnen-Schmutz K., Gilioli G, Gregoire J-C, Miret JAJ, Navarro MN, Niere B, Parnell S, Potting R, Rafoss T, Rossi V, Urek G, Van Bruggen A, Van der Werf W, West J, Winter S, Gardi C, Aukhojee M & MacLeod A (2017) Scientific opinion on the pest categorisation of Spodoptera frugiperda. EFSA Journal 15, 4927-4937.

Jeger M, Bragard C, Caffier D, Candresse T, Chatzivassiliou E, Dehnen-Schmutz K, Gilioli G, Gregoire J-C, Miret JAJ, Navarro MN, Niere B, Parnell S, Potting R, Rafoss T, Rossi V, Urek G, Van Bruggen A, Van der Werf W, West J, Winter S, Day R, Early R, Hruska A, Nagoshi R, Gardi C,Mosbach-Schultz O & MacLeod A (2018) Pest risk assessment of Spodoptera frugiperda for the European Union. EFSA Journal 16, 5351.

Johnson S (1987) Migration and the life history strategy of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda in the western hemisphere. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 8, 543-549. 

Kanno RH, Bolzan A, Kaiser IS,  Ewerton C. Lira, Amaral FSA, Guidolin AS,  Nascimento ARB & Omoto C (2020) Low risk of resistance evolution of Spodoptera frugiperda to chlorfenapyr in Brazil. Journal of Pest Science 93, 365–378.

King ABS & Saunders JL (1984) The invertebrate pests of annual food crops in Central America. Overseas Development Administration, London (UK).

Levy R & Habeck DH (1976) Description of the larvae of Spodoptera sunia and S. latifascia with a key to the mature Spodoptera larvae of the eastern United States (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 69, 585-588.

Liu H, Lan T, Fang D, Gui F, Wang H, Guo W & Cheng X (2019) Chromosome level draft genomes of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), an alien invasive pest in China. BioRxiv 671560.

Luginbill P (1928) The fall armyworm. USDA Technical Bulletin 34. 

Montezano DG, Specht A, Sosa-Gómez DR, RoqueSpecht VF, Sousa-Silva JC, Paula-Moraes SV, Peterson JA & Hunt T (2018) Host plants of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the Americas. African Entomology 26, 286-300.

Naeem-Ullah U, Ashraf Ansari M, Iqbal N & Saeed S (2019) First authentic report of Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera) an alien invasive species from Pakistan. Applied Sciences and Business Economics 6, 1-3.

Nagoshi RN (2019) Evidence that a major subpopulation of fall armyworm found in the Western hemisphere is rare or absent in Africa, which may limit the range of crops at risk of infestation. PloSone 14, e0208966.

Nagoshi RN, Dhanani I, Asokan R, Mahadevaswamy HM, Kalleshwaraswamy CM & Meagher RL (2019) Genetic characterization of fall armyworm infesting South Africa and India indicate recent introduction from a common source population. PloS one 14, e0217755.

Nagoshi RN, Htain NN, Boughton D, Zhang L, Xiao Y, Nagoshi BY & Mota-Sanchez D (2020) Southeastern Asia fall armyworms are closely related to populations in Africa and India, consistent with common origin and recent migration. Scientific Reports 10, 1421.

Pannuti LE, Baldin EL, Hunt TE & Paula-Moraes SV (2016) On-plant larval movement and feeding behavior of fall armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on reproductive corn stages. Environmental Entomology 45, 192-200.

Pashley DP (1988) The current status of fall armyworm host strains. The Florida Entomologist 71, 227–234.

Pashley DP, Johnson SJ & Sparks AN (1985) Genetic population structure of migratory moths: the fall armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 78, 756–762.

Pashley DP, Hammond AM & Hardy TN (1992) Reproductive isolating mechanisms in fall armyworm host strains (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 85, 400–405.

Pitre HN (1985) Insect problems on sorghum in the USA. Proceedings of the International Sorghum Entomology Workshop. Patancheru (India).

Pogue MG (2002) A world revision of the genus Spodoptera Guenée (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Memoires of the American Entomological Society 43, 1-202.

Pogue MG (2011) Using genitalia characters and mitochondrial COI sequences to place “Leucochlaena” hipparis (Druce) in Spodoptera Guenée (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 113, 497-507

Prasanna BM, Huesing JE, Eddy R & Peschke VM (2018) Fall Armyworm in Africa: A Guide for integrated pest management, First Edition. CDMX: CIMMYT (Mexico).

Queensland Government (2020) First mainland detection of fall armyworm. Australia: Queensland Government Department of Agriculture and Fisheries. https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/news-media/media-centre/biosecurity/news/first-mainland-detection-of-fall-armyworm (last accessed 12/05/2020)

Ramasamy S, Periasamy M & Othim S (2018) Fall armyworm in Africa: Which 'race' is in the race, and why does it matter?. Current Science 114, 27-28. 

Repalle N, Jethva DM, Bhut JB, Wadaskar PS & Kachot A (2020) Present status of new invasive pest fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda in India: A review. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 8, 150-156. 

Ríos Díez J, Siegfried B & Saldamando-Benjumea C (2012) Susceptibility of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) strains from central Colombia to Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac entotoxins of Bacillus thuringiensis. Southwestern Entomologist 37, 281-293. 

Rios-Velasco C, Gallegos-Morales G, Cambero-Campos J, Cerna-Chávez E, Del Rincón-Castro C & Valenzuela-García R (2011) Natural enemies of the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Coahuila, México. Florida Entomologist 94, 723-726.

Seymour, P.R.; Roberts, H.; Davis, M.E. (1985) Insects and other invertebrates found in plant material imported into England and Wales, 1984. Reference Book, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, UK  No. 442/84.

da Silva DM, Bueno AD, Andrade K, Stecca CD, Neves PMOJ & de Oliveira MCN (2017) Biology and nutrition of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) fed on different food. Scientia Agricola 74, 18–31.

Sisay B, Tefera T, Wakgari M, Ayalew G & Mendesil E (2019) The efficacy of selected synthetic insecticides and botanicals against fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, in maize. Insects 10, 45.

Sparks AN (1979) A review of the biology of the fall armyworm. Florida Entomologist 1, 82-7.

Sparks AN (1986) Fall Armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae): potential for area-wide management. The Florida Entomologist 69, 603-614.

Swamy HMM, Asokan R, Kalleshwaraswamy CM, Sharanabasappa, Prasad YG, Maruthi MS, Shashank PR, Devi N, Surakasula A, Adarsha S, Srinivas A, Rao S, Vidyasekhar, Shali Raju M, Reddy GSS & Nagesh SN (2018) Prevalence of “R” strain and molecular diversity of fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in India. Indian Journal of Entomology 80, 544-53

Todd EL, Poole RW (1980) Keys and illustrations for the armyworm moths of the noctuid genus Spodoptera Guenée from the Western hemisphere. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 73, 722-738.

USDA GAIN report (2019) Fall armyworm damages corn and threatens other crops in Vietnam. USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, GAIN Report VM2019-0017. https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/vietnam-fall-armyworm-damages-corn-and-threatens-other-crops-vietnam (last accessed 12/05/2020)

Vennila S, Wang Z, Young K, Khurana J, Cruz I, Chen J, Reynaud B, Delatte H, Baufeld PR, Roversi PF, Gargani E, Otuka A, Kobori Y, Tabata J, Sasaki M, Park H, Gwan-Seok, AlJabr LM, Al-Khateeb SA, Meagher R, Balan RK, Day R, Boddupalli P, Al-Dobai S, Tagliati E & Elkahky M (2019) G20 Discussion group on fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). International workshop on facilitating international research collaboration on transboundary plant pests (Tsukuba).

Wheeler GS, Ashley TR & Andrews KL (1989) Larval parasitoids and pathogens of the fall armyworm in honduran maize. Entomophaga 34, 331-340.

Westbrook JK, Nagoshi RN, Meagher RL, Fleischer SJ & Jairam S (2016) Modeling seasonal migration of fall armyworm moths. International Journal of Biometeorology 60(2), 255–267.

This datasheet was extensively revised in 2020 by Tiziana Panzavolta (Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry - University of Florence). Her valuable contribution is gratefully acknowledged.

EPPO (2024) Spodoptera frugiperda. EPPO datasheets on pests recommended for regulation. https://gd.eppo.int (accessed 2024-04-20)

This datasheet was first published in the second edition of 'Quarantine Pests for Europe' in  1997. It is now maintained in an electronic format in the EPPO Global Database. The sections on 'Identity', ‘Hosts’, and 'Geographical distribution' are automatically updated from the database. For other sections, the date of last revision is indicated on the right.

CABI/EPPO (1997) Quarantine Pests for Europe (2^nd edition). CABI, Wallingford (GB).