Preferred name: Ceratocystis ficicola
Authority: Kajitani & Masuya
Taxonomic position: Fungi: Ascomycota: Pezizomycotina: Sordariomycetes: Hypocreomycetidae: Microascales: Ceratocystidaceae
Other scientific names: Ceratocystis fimbriata f. sp. caricae Kajitani & Kudo
view more common names online...
Notes on taxonomy and nomenclature EPPO Categorization: A2 list, Alert list (formerly)
view more categorizations online...
EPPO Code: CERAFC

Ceratocystis ficicola has a narrow host range with only one species F. carica (fig) known to be attacked under field conditions (Kajitani & Masuya, 2011; Tsopelas et al., 2021). The susceptibility of fig cultivars varies and information about susceptibility of fig cultivars and varieties to C. ficicola is limited and sometimes contradictory.

Ficus benjamina proved susceptible in inoculation experiments conducted in Greece (Tsopelas et al., 2021).

Host list: Ficus carica

Ceratocystis ficicola was first described from Japan in 1981. It has since been reported in 33 of the 47 prefectures of Japan (Kajitani & Masuya, 2011; Kajitani, 2017; Y. Kajitani, 2023, pers. comm.). In the EPPO region, C. ficicola has been reported from Greece (Tsopelas et al., 2021) and Italy (including Sicily) (Crous et al., 2023; Habib et al., 2023).

EPPO Region: Greece (mainland), Italy (mainland, Sicilia)
Asia: Japan (Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku)

The life cycle of C. ficicola has not been fully described. However, the overall life cycle of different Ceratocystis species is similar (Cabrera et al., 2016). In general, Ceratocystis species have teleomorph (sexual) and anamorph (asexual) stages of reproduction (Nasution et al., 2019). Ascospores are formed in the ascus and are released on the top of the neck of the perithecium. Unlike conidia, ascospores are held together in a sticky, hydrophobic matrix, not readily separated by water, but they can adhere to the hydrophobic exoskeleton of insects. Asexual reproduction results in the production of conidia that are formed from conidiophores developing from the mycelium and can extend in a filament chain.

Both ascospores and conidia can be spread by insects and can potentially be dispersed locally by rain and water (EPPO, 2023; Harrington, 2013; Kile, 1993; Luchi et al., 2013). Perithecia and ascospores of C. ficicola are formed on freshly cut wood surfaces. Endoconidia of C. ficicola have also been observed inside the infected wood (Kajii et al., 2013). According to Harrington (2013), all Ceratocystis species that affect woody plants can start infections through wounds and spread into the sapwood tissues. This is also true for C. ficicola; inoculation studies have shown that aboveground parts of trees can be infected through wounds (Kajii et al., 2013; Sumida et al., 2016).

Ceratocystis ficicola produces aleurioconidia (long lived spores) in infected wood. Harrington (2013) noted that aleurioconidia that are produced in wood can probably survive digestion by woodboring insects and can be found in frass and sawdust. Species that form aleurioconidia can also be soil-borne pathogens that can directly infect roots.

In Greece, C. ficicola has been consistently isolated from soils associated with dying fig trees. Kajii et al. (2013) noted that the pathogen invades the roots and the main stems of host plants, causing xylem dysfunction and wilt symptoms on infected fig trees.

It is not known how long aleurioconidia of C. ficicola survive in the soil, but based on evidence of survival for similar species, the EPPO PRA considered this could be for more than 4 months (EPPO, 2025).

Spores of C. ficicola are not considered airborne; however, insect frass contaminated with spores may be moved by wind, rain splash or running water over short distances. New infections may arise if the frass comes into contact with fresh wounds on the trees and can also contaminate the soil in fig orchards (Harrington, 2013; Tsopelas et al., 2021). Local spread by the ambrosia beetle, Euwallacea interjectus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), has been observed and documented for Japan (Morita et al., 2012). Dispersal due to human activity, such as via machinery and equipment that have been previously used in infested areas, is mentioned in the literature (e.g. Tsopelas et al., 2021).

Symptoms

Symptoms of C. ficicola are similar to those of many other Ceratocystis species (Nasution et al., 2019).

External symptoms on trunk and shoots include lengthwise canker lesions (Miwa et al., 2014), lesions near buds (Miwa et al., 2014), reduced/stunted shoot growth (Morita et al., 2018). On mature trees, extensive bark cankers form at the bases of the trunks (Morita et al., 2018; Tsopelas et al., 2021), on the lower part of the trunk and in some cases on lateral branches (Habib et al., 2023). Symptoms on the foliage include thinning and yellowing (chlorosis) of the foliage (discoloration; wilt; defoliation), either on some of the branches or over the entire crown (Habib et al., 2023; Tsopelas et al., 2021). In some trees, most of the leaves drop by the end of summer, while some of the unripe fruits remain on the trees indicating rapid tree death (Morita et al., 2018; Tsopelas et al., 2021). Infected trees have necrotic roots (Tsopelas et al., 2021).

Internal symptoms include necrotic dark brown sapwood (xylem discoloration) visible after removal of the bark in the lower part of the trunks, and these lesions extend upwards (Tsopelas et al., 2021). Necrotic sapwood can be present with no external symptoms (cankers, wilt).

The affected trees eventually die (Morita et al., 2016; Tsopelas et al., 2021). In some cases, symptoms are not expressed until 3 years after planting (and infection) and the number of dead trees increases 3–5 years after planting. Time between leaf wilt and tree death was approximately 1 month; tree mortality rate was 90% after 10 years (Morita et al., 2018).

Morphology

A detailed morphological description of the pest is provided by Kajitani and Masuya (2011), Tsopelas et al. (2021) and Crous et al. (2023).

The anamorphic characteristics of C. ficicola are almost the same as those of other species in the C. fimbriata s. l. complex, but C. ficicola does not have apparent doliiform conidia, which are seen on many other species of C. fimbriata s. l., except for C. fimbriata s. str. This characteristic, together with the size of perithecia, helps with the morphological identification of C. ficicola.

Tsopelas et al. (2021) noted that morphological characteristics of the Greek isolates were identical to those of the Japanese isolate, except for the dimensions of the endoconidia. The Japanese isolate had endoconidia of 5–9.5 × 4.5–8 μm, whereas those in the Greek study were 12–40 × 4–7 μm.

Detection and inspection methods

Visual examination is not an appropriate method for the detection of C. ficicola as some infected trees can be asymptomatic. Samples should be sent to the laboratory for testing (e.g. molecular identification). For accurate diagnosis, isolation and identification of the causal agent is necessary. However, no recognized international standards are available for detection and identification of C. ficicola.

In Japan, a baiting method has been developed to detect C. ficicola in soil (Kajitani, 1995; Morita et al., 2013). A baiting method for the detection of C. platani (EPPO, 2014) was used by Tsopelas et al. (2021) to detect C. ficicola in soil and turned out to be very reliable and faster than the one described by Morita et al. (2013).

A TaqMan real-time PCR test based on the ITS region can be used for identification of Ceratocystis species at the generic level. Specific conventional and real-time PCR tests for C. ficicola are under development in UniBa, Italy (EPPO, 2025). In the meantime, the use of multiple barcode regions can provide sufficiently reliable specific identification.

Sequences of ITS, TEF1, TUB2, RPB2 genes of C. ficicola, including that of the type material, are present in NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2023). ITS sequences are available in BOLD (Barcode of Life Data, 2023).

Ceratocystis ficicola has not been intercepted on any pathway in international trade. A number of possible pathways have been suggested in the literature, including plants for planting and conveyance vehicles and equipment. The EPPO PRA identified Ficus carica plants for planting as the main pathway for entry into the EPPO region. Plants for planting in pots with growing media, bonsai plants and bare rooted plants have the highest risk. Conveyance vehicles and equipment that have been operated in a fig production area may present a pathway for entry.

Economic impact

In Japan, C. ficicola has caused serious losses in several fig plantation areas (Kajitani & Masuya, 2011). Some farms abandoned their orchards because of the extensive damage caused by C. ficicola (Shimizu et al., 1999). Morita et al. (2012) showed that, in combination with E. interjectus infestation, C. ficicola can infest 88% of fig trees in an orchard and induce 45% mortality. In Hiroshima Prefecture, the rate of damage in fig orchards is estimated to be 15% (EPPO, 2025). The total loss due to the presence of the pest is estimated to be 12.4 million EUR per year for the worst-case scenario in the whole of Japan (EPPO, 2025).

In Greece, infected trees have been reported to die. In a newly planted 6 ha orchard on Euboea Island on land that had not previously been used for fig tree cultivation, approx. 40–50% of the trees were dead or dying with evident disease symptoms 3 years after planting (Tsopelas et al., 2021).

In Italy, in the Salento area (Apulia) in severe cases, tree mortality was documented. Affected plants showed symptoms of leaf wilt and extensive defoliation. In two orchards located in Salice Salentino and Squinzano, disease incidence exceeded 80% (Habib et al., 2023).

The main fig cultivars in commercial production are susceptible to the pest. Economic losses can be expected in areas where the pest can establish outdoors. If C. ficicola becomes established and spreads in the EPPO region, this may promote decline in fig production. Impact will be more severe in the Mediterranean countries where fig trees are commercially cultivated. The negative impact can potentially also include increased costs for control practices (EPPO, 2025).

If C. ficicola becomes widely established in Mediterranean countries, there may be economic consequences for producers of F. carica plants for planting. Plants may need to be grown under strict protected conditions which can be costly. In addition, research and development of resistant cultivars may increase the cost of fig plants. The absence of available control methods will influence potential impact as there are currently no effective fungicides approved for use in the region to control C. ficicola, and no resistant varieties of fig. Using rootstocks would increase costs for fruit production.

Control

Chemical control

Several chemical fungicides have previously been proposed in Japan to eradicate the disease with a soil application (drenching the soil around the plants) (Hirota et al., 1984; Shimizu et al., 1999; Togawa et al., 1999; Morita et al., 2018; see more details in EPPO, 2025). The suggested protocols assumed two applications of fungicides per year (spring and autumn) or even monthly applications (from March to November), with possible seasonal alternation of different active substances (Hirota et al., 1984). The effectiveness of some methods was enhanced by mulching the soil with polyethylene film and adjustment of the soil pH to 8.0 (Hirota et al., 1984).

The potential use of fungicides in the EPPO region is limited, as most of the fungicides mentioned in literature are not approved in the EU.

Use of resistant rootstock

In Japan, the only control/containment solution currently used is the use of highly resistant rootstock, for example, BC1 hybrids ‘Reikodai 1 go’ (Morita et al., 2021; Kamimori et al., 2022). This highly resistant rootstock (although not immune) has been on the market in Japan since 2022 (S. Jikumaru, 2024, pers. comm.). The EPPO PRA considered that there are no truly resistant cultivars or interspecific hybrids of F. carica (EPPO, 2025).

Biological control

There are no known biological control measures available for this pest. In Japan, as E. interjectus has been suggested to vector the pest, Kuroda (2013) and Morita and Jikumaru (2013) recommended the development of pest management measures to control this beetle. Jiang and Kajimura (2020) demonstrated that the earwig Forficula auricularia L. (Dermaptera: Forficulidae) has some potential as a biological control agent against E. interjectus.

Sanitation

Saranya (2021) suggested disinfection of pruning and grafting tools as supplementary control measures based on the strategies known to control other Ceratocystis pests. Ceratocystis platani has been controlled by removing and burning infected material (Forest Research, 2024). This method can also be applied for infected fig trees.

Phytosanitary risk

 Ceratocystis ficicola has already established in limited areas of Greece and Italy. The pest is more likely to establish outdoors in Mediterranean countries with commercial fig production than in other areas (e.g. Northern Europe). It can establish under protected conditions as well. The EPPO PRA (EPPO, 2025) assessed the potential magnitude of spread to be moderate with human-assisted spread being the main contributing factor. If the pest becomes established, the potential magnitude of impact in the EPPO region would be similar to that in the current area of distribution. The impact may differ depending on the country, and the speed at which control measures can be developed, authorized and implemented (EPPO, 2025).

EPPO (2025) recommends phytosanitary measures for F. carica plants for planting (except seeds, tissue culture, pollen) with or without growing media. Options include pest-free area (PFA), pest-free place/site of production or pest-free production site. Because a 3-year asymptomatic period has been observed for the pest, surveillance should be carried out for several growing periods. There should be restrictions on the movement of host material, soil associated with hosts and equipment used (originating from areas where the pest is known to be present) into the PFA, and into the area surrounding the PFA, especially the area between the PFA and the closest area where the pest is known to be present.

Post-entry quarantine (in the framework of a bilateral agreement) is also a recommended measure, where inspection and testing could be conducted for three growing seasons (EPPO, 2025).

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD) (2023). https://v4.boldsystems.org/ (Accessed on 7 August 2025)

Cabrera OG, Molano EPL, José J, Álvarez JC, Pereira GAG (2016) Ceratocystis wilt pathogens: History and biology—highlighting C. cacaofunesta, the causal agent of wilt disease of cacao. In: Bailey B, Meinhardt L (eds) Cacao Diseases. Springer, Cham. Pp. 383–428. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24789-2_12

Crous PW, Akulov A, Balashov S, Boers J, Braun U, Castillo J, Delgado MA, Denman S, Erhard A, Gusella G, Jurjević Ž, Kruse J, Malloch DW, Osieck ER, Polizzi G, Schumacher RK, Slootweg E, Starink-Willemse M, van Iperen AL, Verkley GJM, Groenewald JZ (2023) New and Interesting Fungi. 6. Fungal Systematics and Evolution 11, 109–156. https://doi/org/10.3114/fuse.2023.11.09

EPPO (2014) PM 7/14 (2) Ceratocystis platani. EPPO Bulletin 44, 338–349. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/epp.12159

EPPO (2016) Standard PM5/8(1) Guidelines on the phytosanitary measure ‘Plants grown under physical isolation’. Available at https://gd.eppo.int/standards/PM5/

EPPO (2023) Ceratocystis platani. EPPO datasheets on pests recommended for regulation. https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/CERAFP (Accessed on 7 August 2025)

EPPO (2025) EPPO Technical Document No. 1095. Pest risk analysis for Ceratocystis ficicola (Ascomycota: Ceratocystidaceae). EPPO, Paris. Available at https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/CERAFC/documents

Forest Research (2024) Canker stain of plane (Ceratocystis platani). Available at: https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/fthr/pest-and-disease-resources/canker-stain-of-plane-ceratocystis-platani/

Habib W, Carlucci M, Manco L, Altamura G, Delle Donne AG, Nigro F (2023) First report of Ceratocystis ficicola causing wilt disease on common fig (Ficus carica) in Italy. Plant Disease 107 (10), 3287. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-03-23-0464-PDN

Harrington TC (2013) Ceratocystis diseases. In: Infectious Forest Diseases (eds. P Gonthier and G Nicolotti), CABI International, Wallingford, UK.

Hirota K, Kato K, Miyagawa T (1984) Chemical control of Ceratocystis canker in fig. Research Bulletin of the Aichi-ken Agricultural Research Center 16, 211–218. (in Japanese, with English summary)

Jiang Z-R, Kajimura H (2020) Earwig preying on ambrosia beetle: Evaluating predatory process and prey preference. Journal of Applied Entomology 144, 743–750.

Kajii C, Morita T, Jikumaru S, Kajimura H, Yamaoka Y, Kuroda K (2013) Xylem dysfunction in Ficus carica infected with wilt fungus Ceratocystis ficicola and the role of the vector beetle Euwallacea interjectus. International Association of Wood Anatomists Journal 34, 301–312. https://doi.org/10.1163/22941932-00000025

Kajitani Y (1999) The dispersal period of the Xyleborus interjectus (Coleoptera, Scolytidae), a vector of the fig Ceratocystis canker, and the organ carrying the causal fungus. Annals of the Phytopathological Society of Japan 65, 377 (in Japanese)

Kajitani Y (2017) Infection strategies of pathogens observed in fig wilt disease and grapevine swelling arm. The 17^th Fungal Plant Pathogen Workshop (FPPW 17). Morioka City (Iwate, Japan, 28 April 2017), 9–20. (in Japanese)

Kajitani Y, Kanematsu S (1997) PCR-RFLP analysis of the rDNA ITS region of Ceratocystis fimbriata isolated from fig and sweet potato. Annals of the Phytopathological Society of Japan 63, 208 (in Japanese)

Kajitani Y, Kudo A (1993) Difference of Ceratocystis fimbriata isolated from fig and sweet potato. Annals of the Phytopathological Society of Japan 59, 290. (in Japanese)

Kajitani Y (1995) Simple method with cut shoots for detection of fig Ceratocystis cancer pathogen, Ceratocystis fimbriata from soil in orchards. Annales of the Phytopathological Society of Japan 61 (3), 229 https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjphytopath1918/61/3/61_3_210/_pdf/-char/en

Kajitani Y, Masuya H (2011) Ceratocystis ficicola sp. nov., a causal fungus of fig canker in Japan. Mycoscience 52, 349–353.

Kamimori M, Isobe T, Yakushiji H (2022) Evaluation of Ceratocystis canker resistance, vegetative growth, and fruit production of ‘Masui Dauphine’ Fig (Ficus carica) grafted on ‘Reikodai 1 go’ BC1 of an interspecific hybridization of F. carica and F. erecta. The Horticulture Journal 91(3), 337–344.

Kato K, Miyagawa T (1980) Fig canker disease. Annals of the Phytopathological Society of Japan 46, 97–98 (in Japanese)

Kato K, Hirota K, Miyagawa T (1982) A new disease, Ceratocystis canker of fig caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata Ellis et Halsted. Plant Protection 36, 55–59 (in Japanese)

Kato K, Hirota K, Miyagawa T, Yokoyama T (1981) Fig canker disease. Annals of the Phytopathological Society of Japan 47, 373–374 (in Japanese)

Kile GA (1993) Plant diseases caused by species of Ceratocystis sensu stricto and Chalara. In: Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma, Taxonomy, Ecology and Pathogenicity. Eds MJ Wingfield, KA Seifert and JF Webber, APS Press, Minnesota.

Kuroda K (2013) Collaboration of wilt pathogen and vector beetle successfully induces extensive xylem dysfunction and wilt symptom. The 8th Pacific Regional Wood Anatomy Conference, 17–21 October 2013, Nanjing Forestry University, China. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257654295_Collaboration_of_wilt_pathogen_and_vector_beetle_successfully_induces_extensive_xylem_dysfunction_and_wilt_symptom (Accessed on 7 August 2025)

Liu FF, Barnes I, Wingfield JRM, Chen SF (2017) Molecular phylogenetics and microsatellite analysis reveal a new pathogenic Ceratocystis species in the Asian-Australian clade. Plant Pathology 67, 1097–1113.

Luchi N, Ghelardini L, Belbarhri L, Quartier M, Santini A (2013) Rapid detection of Ceratocystis platani inoculum by quantitative Real-Time PCR assay. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 79, 5394–5404.

Miwa Y, Hosomi A, Ishii T (2014) Lesion spreading of Ceratocystis canker on ‘Masui Dauphine’ fig trees. International Journal of Agricultural Policy and Research 2(2), 55–06.

Morita T, Hara H, Mise D, Jikumaru S (2012) A case study of Ceratocystis canker epidemic in relation with Euwallacea interjectus infestation. Annual Report of The Kansai Plant Protection Society 54, 29–34. (in Japanese, with English summary)

Morita T, Hara T, Nakano M, Jikumaru S (2013) Detection of fig stain blight fungus from soil using branch cutting method. Annual Report of The Kansai Plant Protection Society 55, 71–75. (in Japanese)

Morita T, Jikumaru S (2013) A case study of Ceratocystis cancer epidemic following the invasion of Euwallacea interjectus. Shokubutsu Bōeki (Plant Protection) 67 (5), 23–26. (in Japanese) 

Morita T, Jikumaru S, Kuroda K (2016) Disease development in Ficus carica plants after inoculation with Ceratocystis ficicola. (1) Relationship between xylem dysfunction and wilt symptoms. Japanese Journal of Phytopathology 82, 301–309. https://doi.org/10.3186/jjphytopath.82.301 (in Japanese, with English summary)

Morita T, Mise D, Jikumaru S (2018) Observation of external and internal symptoms in fig cultivar ‘Houraishi’ planted in soil contaminated with Ceratocystis ficicola. Bulletin of the Hiroshima Prefectural Technology Research Institute Agricultural Technology Research Center 92, 1–9. (in Japanese, with English summary)

Nasution A, Glen M, Beadle C, Mohammed C (2019) Ceratocystis wilt and canker – a disease that compromises the growing of commercial Acacia-based plantations in the tropics. Australian Forestry 82, 80–93.

National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) (2023) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ (Accessed on 21 November 2023)

Saranya R (2021) Ceratocystis fimbriata – A threatening pathogen. Agriculture and Food: E-Newsletter 3(11), 91–93. https://krishi.icar.gov.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/70260/1/popular%20art.cera.pdf 

Shimizu S, Miyoshi T, Ochi M, Tachibana Y (1999) Occurrence of fig Ceratocystis canker in Ehime Prefecture and its control by thiophanate-methyl triflumizole fungicide. Bulletin of the Ehime Fruit Tree Experimental Station 13, 27–35 (in Japanese, with English summary)

Sumida S, Morita T, Kuroda K (2016) Invasion strategy of Ceratocystis ficicola from soil to host (Ficus carica). Tree and Forest Health 20, 30–31. (in Japanese)

Togawa M, Masui S, Nomura A, Masui H (1999) Occurrence and control of stem rot on fig. Bulletin of the Shizuoka Prefectural Citrus Experiment Station 28, 51–62. (in Japanese, with English summary)

Tsopelas P, Soulioti N, Wingfield MJ, Barnes I, Marincowitz S, Tjamos EC, Paplomatas EJ (2021) Ceratocystis ficicola causing a serious disease of Ficus carica in Greece. Phytopathologia Mediterranea60(2), 337–349. https://doi.org/10.36253/phyto-12794 

This datasheet was prepared in 2025 by the EPPO Secretariat based on the pest risk analysis produced by an EPPO Expert Working Group in 2024. The Expert Working Group was composed of Clovis Douanla-Meli (JKI, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Institute for National and International Plant Health, Germany), Erincik Ömer (Adnan Menderes University, Türkiye), Jose Maria Guitian Castrillon (Tecnologias y Servicios Agrarios, S. A.—TRAGSATEC, Spain), Shota Jikumaru (Hiroshima Prefectural Technology Research Institute, Japan), Franco Nigro (UNIBA, Italy), Panaghiotis Tsopelas (Institute of Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems, Greece), Marco Pautasso (Observer, European Food Safety Authority, Italy), Dmitrii Musolin (EPPO) and Rob Tanner (EPPO).

EPPO (2026) Ceratocystis ficicola. EPPO datasheets on pests recommended for regulation. https://gd.eppo.int (accessed 2026-04-21)

This datasheet was first published in the EPPO Bulletin in 2026.  It is maintained in an electronic format in the EPPO Global Database. The sections on ‘Identity’, ‘Hosts’ and ‘Geographical distribution’ are automatically updated from the database. For other sections, the date of last revision is indicated on the right.
EPPO (2026) Datasheets on  pests recommended for regulation. Ceratocystis ficicola . EPPO Bulletin 56(1),  102-107. https://doi.org/10.1111/epp.70051