Preferred name: Anastrepha suspensa
Authority: (Loew)
Taxonomic position: Animalia: Arthropoda: Hexapoda: Insecta: Diptera: Tephritidae
Other scientific names: Acrotoxa suspensa (Loew), Anastrepha longimacula Greene, Anastrepha unipuncta Sein, Trypeta suspensa Loew
Common names in English: Caribbean fruit fly, greater Antillean fruit fly
view more common names online...
Notes on taxonomy and nomenclature EPPO Categorization: A1 list
EU Categorization: A1 Quarantine pest (Annex II A)
view more categorizations online...
EPPO Code: ANSTSU

The preferred hosts of Anastrepha suspensa are Myrtaceae, especially Eugenia uniflora and other Eugenia species, guavas (Psidium guajava and other Psidium species), and Syzygium species. Tropical almond (Terminalia catappa) and calamondin (Citrofortunella microcarpa), which are primarily planted as ornamentals, and loquat, kumquat, and sapodilla, are also important hosts, and a variety of other fruits are occasionally infested. Citrus spp. are not normally significant hosts (Whervin, 1974; Enkerlin et al., 1989), but at least in Puerto Rico and USA (Florida) A. suspensa can attack ripe citrus fruits, especially grapefruit and oranges, and is of quarantine importance. As is the case for several other pest species of Anastrepha, A. suspensa has been recorded on a wide range of fruits, both tropical and temperate, but many of these records may be incidental occurrences or need verification (Norrbom, 2004).

Host list: Annona glabra, Annona reticulata, Annona squamosa, Atalantia buxifolia, Atalantia citroides, Averrhoa carambola, Bischofia javanica, Blighia sapida, Canella winterana, Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens, Carica papaya, Carissa macrocarpa, Casearia hirsuta, Casimiroa edulis, Chrysobalanus icaco, Chrysophyllum cainito, Chrysophyllum oliviforme, Citrus maxima, Citrus reticulata, Citrus x aurantiifolia, Citrus x aurantium var. paradisi, Citrus x aurantium var. sinensis, Citrus x aurantium, Citrus x limon var. limetta, Citrus x limonia, Citrus x nobilis, Citrus x tangelo, Clausena lansium, Coccoloba uvifera, Dimocarpus longan, Diospyros discolor, Diospyros kaki, Diospyros virginiana, Dovyalis caffra, Dovyalis hebecarpa, Drypetes lateriflora, Eriobotrya japonica, Eugenia cerasiflora, Eugenia coronata, Eugenia dombeyi, Eugenia ligustrina, Eugenia luschnathiana, Eugenia pyriformis, Eugenia umbellulifera, Eugenia uniflora, Ficus altissima, Ficus carica, Flacourtia indica, Fortunella crassifolia, Fortunella margarita, Garcinia aristata, Garcinia livingstonei, Garcinia xanthochymus, Malpighia emarginata, Malpighia glabra, Malus domestica, Mangifera indica, Manilkara jaimiqui subsp. emarginata, Manilkara roxburghiana, Manilkara zapota, Momordica balsamina, Muntingia calabura, Murraya paniculata, Myrcianthes fragrans, Myrciaria glomerata, Persea americana, Phoenix dactylifera, Pimenta dioica, Plinia cauliflora, Pouteria campechiana, Prunus persica var. nucipersica, Prunus persica, Psidium acutangulum, Psidium cattleyanum, Psidium friedrichsthalianum, Psidium guajava, Psidium guineense, Punica granatum, Pyrus communis, Pyrus pyrifolia, Pyrus x lecontei, Rubus idaeus, Rubus sp., Solanum lycopersicum, Spondias dulcis, Spondias mombin, Swietenia mahagoni, Synsepalum dulcificum, Syzygium cumini, Syzygium jambos, Syzygium malaccense, Syzygium samarangense, Terminalia catappa, Terminalia muelleri, Trevesia palmata, Triphasia trifolia, Ximenia americana, x Citrofortunella floridana, x Citrofortunella microcarpa, x Citrofortunella sp.

Anastrepha suspensa occurs in the Greater Antilles, Bahamas, Cayman Islands, and Virgin Islands. It is invasive in the USA (Florida) (Weems, 1965, 1966). The record from French Guiana (CABI/EPPO, 2002) is doubtful. It has been trapped in California (USA) but is not established there (Foote et al., 1993).

North America: United States of America (Florida)
Central America and Caribbean: Bahamas, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands (British)

As in Anastrepha species generally, eggs are laid in the host fruit. Larvae pass through three instars that feed in the flesh of the fruit. Mature larvae exit the fruit and pupariate in the soil. Adult males produce a pheromone and lek to attract females for mating. Calling occurs mainly in the early afternoon (Aluja et al., 1999).

Symptoms

Attacked fruit have tiny oviposition punctures, but these and other symptoms of damage are often difficult to detect in the early stages of infestation. Considerable damage may occur inside the fruit before symptoms are visible externally, often as networks of tunnels accompanied by rotting.

Morphology

Immature stages

The identification of larvae of Anastrepha species, like those of most fruit flies, is extremely difficult. Larvae have been described for only 9% of the species of Anastrepha (Steck et al., 2019). Anastrepha suspensa is included in the key of Steck et al. (1990) and the interactive key of Carroll et al. (2004) to third stage larvae, but it cannot be reliably distinguished from similar species such as A. fraterculus and A. obliqua. Lawrence (1979), Heppner (1984), Steck et al. (1990), White & Elson-Harris (1992), and Carroll et al. (2004) provided descriptive information on the third instar.

As in other Anastrepha species, the larva is whitish, up to 12 mm in length, lacking an external head capsule. The two mandibles, or mouthhooks, are strongly developed and equal in size. The body is tapered anteriorly and truncate posteriorly. Posterior spiracular plate weak, unpigmented, without peritreme, with three openings or slits arranged with their medial ends converging, the dorsal and ventral slits subparallel or oriented at less than 90°. 

The following diagnostic description of the third instar is based on Steck et al. (1990), Carroll et al. (2004) and White and Elson-Harris (1994): Length 6.7-9.0 mm. Head: 8-13 oral ridges, 3-4 small accessory plates; mandible moderately sclerotized, with single large slender curved apical tooth. Thoracic and abdominal segments: T1-T3 middorsally with 5-10, 3-5, and 3-5 rows of spinules, respectively; A1-A8 without dorsal spinules medially; caudal segment with tubercles and sensilla small but obvious. Anterior spiracle with 8-15 tubules. Posterior spiracle with dorsal and ventral bundles of 9-16 hairs. Anal lobes large, protuberant, entire or bifid.

The egg is 1.02-1.40 mm long, 0.25-0.30 mm wide; white; posteriorly gradually tapered; anteriorly abruptly tapered, without lobe, micropyle near tip, with rim almost imperceptible; with strong chorion ornamentation covering about 11% of egg length comprising irregular polygons with aeropyles in polygon walls (Figueiredo et al., 2013).

Adult

Like other Anastrepha species, A. suspensa is easily separated from other tephritids by a simple wing venation character; vein M₁, the longitudinal vein that reaches the wing margin just behind the wing apex, curves strongly forward before meeting the costa on the wing margin without a visible angle. Furthermore, as is the case for most Anastrepha species, A. suspensa has a characteristic wing pattern composed of 3 orange and brown bands: the ‘C-band’ on the anterior margin from the base to near midlength; the ‘S-band’, a sideways S-shaped band from the wing base, curving forward across the middle of the wing (in A. suspensa usually narrowly connected to the C-band, but with a triangular marginal hyaline area between them), then running along the anterior margin to the wing apex; and the ‘V-band’, an inverted V-shaped band on the posterior apical half of the wing.

Identification to species is more difficult. It is essential to examine the aculeus (which is usually inside the oviscape, the basal tubelike part of the ovipositor) of a female specimen to achieve positive identification. The only comprehensive identification tool for Anastrepha is the online key by Norrbom et al. (2012). Adults, especially males, of A. suspensa are difficult to separate from those of A. fraterculus and various other similar species of the fraterculus group; if necessary, specimens should be referred to a specialist. Adult females of A. suspensa can be distinguished from those of other species of Anastrepha by the following combination of characters: Setae red brown to dark brown; mesopleuron and scutum without brown markings, except usually with distinct brown spot medially on scuto-scutellar suture (sometimes absent in Jamaican specimens); subscutellum entirely orange or with brown lateral mark; mediotergite entirely orange or narrowly brown laterally; S-band predominantly orange, including medial section, distal section broad, at apex of vein R₂₊₃ 0.8-1.0 times width of cell r₂₊₃ (both measured perpendicular to band), extended to or almost to apex of vein M₁; V-band with proximal arm extending along posterior wing margin more than 1/3 distance from apex of vein M₄ to apex of vein CuA+CuP; oviscape 1.45–1.95 mm long, 0.60–0.80 times mesonotum length; aculeus 1.4–1.6 mm long; tip 0.19–0.23 mm long, with distal 0.50–0.65 distinctly serrate and with lateral margin of serrate part not curved dorsally, 0.10–0.13 mm wide, 1.5-2.2 times as long as wide.

The adult of A. suspensa is very similar to that of A. obliqua and A. fraterculus, but differs from the former in the shape of the aculeus tip and in usually having a brown medial spot on the scuto-scutellar suture, and from the latter in having the apical section of the S-band broader.

Molecular

Anastrepha suspensa was included in the investigation by Barr et al. (2017a) of the DNA barcode region of the cytochrome oxidase I gene for diagnosis of Anastrepha pest species. It cannot be distinguished from Mesoamerican populations of Anastrepha fraterculus, as these taxa share identical COI barcode sequences. However, A. suspensa can be distinguished from related taxa by small differences in the ITS2 DNA region (Barr et al., 2017b). Boykin et al. (2006) examined variation in COI sequences in 107 individuals from throughout most of the range of A. suspensa and found no evidence of population segregation. 

Detection and inspection methods

No specialized male lures are available for Anastrepha species. Monitoring for adults utilizes traps with protein-based or other ammonia-emitting lures, which are much less effective than the male lures used for various dacine fruit flies (Diaz-Fleischer et al., 2009). McPhail traps baited with torula yeast, hydrolyzed protein, or other fermenting protein lures, or Multilure traps baited with ammonium acetate and putrescine are typically used for the capture of Anastrepha species (Thomas et al., 2001; Adaime et al., 2011).

Anastrepha adults are capable of long-distance dispersal, thus natural movement is an important means of spread (Aluja et al., 1999).

In international trade, the major means of fruit fly dispersal to previously uninfested areas is via transport of fruit containing live eggs or larvae. For the EPPO region, the most important imported fruits liable to carry A. suspensa are Eugenia, Psidium and Syzygium species, and to a lesser extent various other hosts, including Citrus. There is also a risk of the transport of fruit fly puparia in soil or packaging.

Economic impact

Anastrepha spp. are the most serious fruit fly pests in the tropical Americas (Norrbom & Foote, 1989), with the possible exception of the introduced Ceratitis capitata and Bactrocera carambolae. A. suspensa is primarily a pest of guavas and other Myrtaceae (White & Elson-Harris, 1992). It is recorded from Citrus spp., but only in some areas and there is evidence that only ripe fruits are attacked. The fact that the pest occurs in southern Florida, USA, a major center of tourism and agriculture, has given it particular quarantine importance (Greany et al., 1993).

Control

Bait sprays, typically a mixture of Spinosad, malathion, or other insecticides and a food-based attractant, such as hydrolyzed yeast, are the most common type of chemical control for A. suspensa (Bateman, 1982; Roessler, 1989). Cultural practices, such as destroying all fallen and infested fruits and removal of alternative hosts, are also used. Soil drenches around host plants with appropriate pesticides are used to kill larvae and pupae during eradication programs (Stark et al., 2014). Biological control with braconid wasps has been used with limited success in Florida and Puerto Rico (Baranowski et al., 1993, Sivinski et al., 1996, Eitam et al., 2004, Garcia et al., 2020). Sterile insect technique (SIT) was evaluated for suppression and eradication in area-wide management programs to control A. suspensa in Florida (Holler et al., 1999) but is not currently used. In Florida, the Caribbean Fruit Fly Protocol Program (https://www.fdacs.gov/Agriculture-Industry/Pests-and-Diseases/Plant-Pests-and-Diseases/Exotic-Fruit-Flies/Caribbean-Fruit-Fly-Protocol-Program) facilitates the export of fresh fruits (currently citrus, peach and carambola) to areas requiring regulatory safeguards (also see Simpson, 1993). Certification is based on the fruit being harvested from designated areas, following protocols including removal of preferred hosts, triggers for bait spray applications, and monitoring of traps, harvesting, packinghouses and bait spray applications during the harvest season.

Phytosanitary risk

A. suspensa has a broad range of hosts and is a significant pest throughout its range, especially on Eugenia, Psidium and Syzygium species. It is invasive at least in Florida, USA (Weems, 1965, 1966) and has been trapped in California (Foote et al., 1993). It occurs primarily in lowland, tropical or subtropical areas with hot climates, and is not capable of surviving the cold winters of the northern and central part of the EPPO region, thus the risk of establishment of A. suspensa is limited at most to the warmer southern parts of the EPPO region. Populations might enter and multiply during the summer months. In southern areas, some such populations might survive one or several winters, though in any case the direct losses from such introductions would probably not be high. The major risk for EPPO countries arises from the probable imposition of stricter phytosanitary restrictions on exported fruits (particularly to America and Japan) if any Anastrepha sp. enters and multiplies, even temporarily.

Consignments of fruits of Eugenia, Psidium and Syzygium species as well as other hosts such as Citrus, Eriobotrya japonica, and Fortunella spp., from countries where A. suspensa occurs should be inspected for symptoms of infestation and those suspected should be cut open in order to look for larvae. EPPO recommends that such fruits should come from an area where A. suspensa does not occur, or from a place of production found to be free from the pest by regular inspection for 3 months before harvest. Fruits may also be treated in transit by cold treatment (e.g. 13, 15 or 17 days at 0.5, 1 or 1.5°C, respectively) or, for certain types of fruits, by vapour heat (e.g. keeping at 43°C for 4-6 h) (Hallman, 1990; USDA, 1994), or forced hot-air (Sharp & Hallman, 1992; Sharp, 1993), or hot-water immersion (Gould & Sharp, 1992). Temperature treatments specifically cited against A. suspensa include exposure to water or air >43°C and exposure to cold (0-2.22°C) (Sharp et al., 1993). Ethylene dibromide was previously widely used as a fumigant but is now generally withdrawn because of its carcinogenicity. Methyl bromide is approved on a very limited basis by the USA (e.g., 40 g/m³ for 2 h at 21-29.5°C; Hallman & King, 1992; USDA, 2020). Gamma-ray irradiation has also been investigated as a quarantine treatment against A. suspensa (Gould & Windeguth, 1991), while use of heat-shrinkable film to wrap mangoes is not an adequate treatment (Gould & Sharp, 1990).

Plants of host species transported with roots from countries where A. suspensa occurs should be free from soil, or the soil should not contain fruits or be treated to kill any puparia.

Anonymous (1966) [Host records for Tephritidae]. United States Department of Agriculture Cooperative Economic Insect Report, 16, 32, 83, 225, 469, 498, 525, 556, 589, 652, 683, 712, 738, 818, 888, 965, 980, 1034, 1118, 1158. 

Anonymous (1968) [Host records for Tephritidae]. United States Department of Agriculture Cooperative Economic Insect Report, 18, 54, 153, 260, 365, 452, 926, 950. 

Anonymous (1969) [Host records for Tephritidae]. United States Department of Agriculture Cooperative Economic Insect Report, 19, 607.  

Baranowski R, Glenn H, Sivinski J (1993) Biological control of the Caribbean fruit fly. Florida Entomologist 76, 245-251.

Bateman MA (1982) Chemical methods for suppression or eradication of fruit fly populations. In: Economic fruit flies of the South Pacific Region (Ed. by Drew RAI, Hooper GHS, Bateman MA) (2nd edition). Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 115-128. 

Boykin LM, Shatters RG, Jr, Hall DG, Burns RE, Franqui RA (2006) Analysis of host preference and geographical distribution of Anastrepha suspensa (Diptera: Tephritidae) using phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I DNA sequence data. Bulletin of Entomological Research 96, 457-469.

CABI/EPPO (2002) Anastrepha suspensa [Distribution map]. Distribution Maps of Plant Pests, No. 627. CAB International, Wallingford.

Eitam A, Sivinski J, Holler T, Aluja M (2004) Biogeography of braconid Parasitoids of the Caribbean fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Florida. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 97, 928–939.

EPPO/CABI (1996a) Anastrepha obliqua. In: Quarantine pests for Europe. 2nd edition (Ed. by Smith IM, McNamara DG, Scott PR, Holderness M). CAB INTERNATIONAL, Wallingford, UK.

EPPO/CABI (1996b) Ceratitis capitata. In: Quarantine pests for Europe. 2nd edition (Ed. by Smith, IM, McNamara DG, Scott PR, Holderness M).). CAB INTERNATIONAL, Wallingford, UK. 

EPPO (1983) Data sheets on quarantine organisms No. 41, Trypetidae (non-European). EPPO Bulletin 13(1).  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2338.1983.tb01715.x 

Fernández AM, Rodríguez D, Hernández-Ortiz V (1998) Notas sobre el genero Anastrepha Schiner en Cuba con descripcion de una nueva especie (Diptera: Tephritidae). Folia Entomológica Mexicana (1997) 99, 29-36.

Figueiredo JVA, Perondini ALP, Ruggiro EM, Prezotto LF, Selivon D (2013) External eggshell morphology of Anastrepha fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae). Acta Zoologica 94, 125-133.

Foote RH, Blanc FL, Norrbom AL (1993) Handbook of the fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) of America north of Mexico. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, 571 pp. 

Gonçalves CR (1938) As moscas de fruitas e seu combate. Experiencias e estudos realisados em 1936. Publ. Min. Agric., Dep. Nac. Prod. Veg., Serv. Def. Sanit. Veg. (Rio J.) No. 12, 1-43.

Gould WP, Hallman G (2001a) Host status of mamey sapote to Caribbean fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae). Florida Entomologist 84, 370-375. 

Gould WP, Hallman G (2001b) Laboratory and field infestation studies on Monstera to determine its host status in relation to the Caribbean fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae). Florida Entomologist 84, 437-438.

Gould WP, Hennessey MK, Peña J, Castineiras A, Nguyen R, Crane J (1999) Nonhost status of lychees and longans to Caribbean fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 92, 1212-1216.

Gould WP, Sharp JL (1990) Caribbean fruit fly mortality induced by shrink wrapping infested mangoes. Journal of Economic Entomology 83, 2324-2326.

Gould WP, Sharp JL (1992) Hot-water immersion quarantine treatment for guavas infested with Caribbean fruit fly. Journal of Economic Entomology 86, 1235-1239.

Gould WP, Windeguth DL von (1991) Gamma irradiation as a quarantine treatment for carambolas infested with Caribbean fruit flies. Florida Entomologist 74, 297-305.

Greany PD, Riherd C, Singh KJ, Singh OP, Banafer RNS (1993) Caribbean fruit fly status, economic importance, and control (Diptera: Tephritidae). Florida Entomologist 76, 209-211.

Greene CT (1934) A revision of the genus Anastrepha based on a study of the wings and on the length of the ovipositor sheath (Diptera: Trypetidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 36, 127-179.

Hallman GJ (1990) Vapor heat treatment of carambolas infested with Caribbean fruit fly. Journal of Economic Entomology 83, 2340-2342.

Hallman GJ, King JR (1992) Methyl bromide fumigation quarantine treatment for carambolas infested with Caribbean fruit fly. Journal of Economic Entomology 85, 1231-1234.

Hennessey MK, Gould WP, Steck GJ (2009) Anastrepha edentata and other fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) detected on Key Largo, Florida. Florida Entomologist 92, 173-176.

Holler TC, Harris DL, Burns RE (1999) Status of the Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa (Loew), sterile insect technique programme in the state of Florida, USA - November 1996, p. 111-120. In IAEA TECDOC 1064, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 202 pp.

Ibrahim R (1980) Fruit flies of Florida. Dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville, 356 pp. 

Kisliuk M, Cooley DE (1933) Fruit-fly survey in the West Indies, Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, and Peru. U.S. Dep. Agric. Bur. Plant Quarantine Service Regulatory Announcements 116, 227-243. 

Loew H (1862) Monographs of the Diptera of North America. Part I. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 6 (1 [= publ. 141]), 221 pp.

McAlister LC Jr. (1936) Observations on the West Indian fruit fly at Key West in 1932-33. Journal of Economic Entomology 29, 440-445.

McAlister LC Jr, McCubbin WA, Pfaffman GA, Owrey WT, Taylor HG, Berryhill IW (1941) A study of the adult populations of the West Indian fruitfly in citrus plantings in Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico Experiment Station Bulletin 41, 16 pp. 

Meyer WL, Knight R Jr (1998) A new host record for the Caribbean fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae). Florida Entomologist 81, 235-237.

Norrbom AL (2004) Host plant database for Anastrepha and Toxotrypana (Diptera: Tephritidae: Toxotrypanini). Diptera Data Dissemination Disk (CD-ROM), 2.

Norrbom AL, Foote RH (1989) Taxonomy and zoogeography; the taxonomy and zoogeography of the genus Anastrepha (Diptera: Tephritidae). In: Fruit flies; their biology, natural enemies and control (Ed. by Robinson, A.S.; Hooper, G.), pp. 15-26. World Crop Pests 3(A). Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 

Oakley RG (1950) Part III Fruit Flies (Tephritidae). p. 169-246, In: Manual of foreign plant pests. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Administration, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Division of Foreign Plant Quarantines.

Roessler Y (1989) Control; insecticides; insecticidal bait and cover sprays. In: World Crop Pests 3(B). Fruit flies; their biology, natural enemies and control (Ed. by Robinson AS, Hooper G), pp. 329-336. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 

Schiner IR (1868) Diptera. In: Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859, unter den Befehlen des Commodore B. von Wüllerstorf-Urbair. Zoologischer Theil. Zweiter Band. 1. Abtheilung, [Sect.] B, [Art. I]. Karl Gerold's Sohn, Vienna, 388 pp.

Seín F Jr (1933) Anastrepha (Trypetydae [sic], Diptera) fruit flies in Puerto Rico. Journal of the Department of  Agriculture of Puerto Rico 17, 183-196.

Sharp JL (1987) Laboratory and field experiments to improve enzymatic casein hydrolysate as an arrestant and attractant for Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa (Diptera: Tephritidae). Florida Entomologist 70, 225-233.

Sharp JL, Hallman GJ (1992) Hot-air quarantine treatment for carambolas infested with the Caribbean fruit fly. Journal of Economic Entomology 85, 168-171.

Sharp JL (1993) Hot-air quarantine treatment for Marsh white grapefruit infested with the Caribbean fruit fly. Journal of Economic Entomology 86, 462-464.

Sharp JL, Singh OP, Verma SN (1993) Heat and cold treatments for postharvest quarantine disinfestation of fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) and other quarantine pests. Florida Entomologist 76, 212-218.

Simpson SE (1993) Caribbean fruit fly-free zone certification protocol in Florida. Florida Entomologist 76, 228-233.

Sivinski JM, Calkins CO, Baranowski R, Harris D, Brambila J, Diaz J, Burns RE, Holler T, Dodson G (1996) Suppression of a Caribbean fruit fly (Anastrepha suspensa (Loew)) (Diptera: Tephritidae) population through augmentative releases of the parasitoid Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Biological Control 16, 177–185.

Steck GJ, Carroll LE, Celedonio-Hurtado H, Guillen-Aguilar J (1990) Methods for identification of Anastrepha larvae (Diptera: Tephritidae), and key to 13 species. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 92, 333-346. 

Stone A (1942) The fruitflies of the genus Anastrepha. United States Department of Agriculture Miscellaneous Publication 439, 112 pp.

Swanson RW, Baranowski RM (1972) Host range and infestation by the Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa (Diptera: Tephritidae), in south Florida. Proceedings of the Florida. State Horticultural Society, 271-273.

USDA (2020) Treatment manual. USDA/APHIS, Frederick, USA. 

Weems HV Jr (1965) Anastrepha suspensa (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae). Florida Department of Agriculture, Division of Plant Industry, Entomology Circular 38, 4 pp. 

Weems HV Jr (1966) Caribbean fruit fly. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticulture Society 79, 401-405.

White IM, Elson-Harris MM (1992) Fruit flies of economic significance: their identification and bionomics. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 

Whervin LW van (1974) Some fruitflies (Tephritidae) in Jamaica. PANS 20, 11-19.

Windeguth DL von, Pierce WH, Steiner LF (1972) Infestations of Anastrepha suspensa in fruit on Key West, Florida. Florida Entomologist 56, 127-131.

This datasheet was extensively revised in 2021 by Allen L. Norrbom (Systematic Entomology Laboratory, ARS, USDA). His valuable contribution is gratefully acknowledged.

EPPO (2024) Anastrepha suspensa. EPPO datasheets on pests recommended for regulation. https://gd.eppo.int (accessed 2024-12-22)

This datasheet was first published in the second edition of 'Quarantine Pests for Europe' in 1997 and revised in 2021. It is now maintained in an electronic format in the EPPO Global Database. The sections on 'Identity', ‘Hosts’, and 'Geographical distribution' are automatically updated from the database. For other sections, the date of last revision is indicated on the right.

CABI/EPPO (1997) Quarantine Pests for Europe (2^nd edition). CABI, Wallingford (GB).