Invasive Alien Plants in European Macaronesia
The potential of invasiveness of 195 alien species (plants and animals) from European Macaronesia (Azores (PT), Madeira (PT) and the Islas Canarias (ES)) was assessed using two series of questions (table 1 & 2 below) about their noxiousness and feasibility of control:
Table 1: Measures of noxiousness, known and potential effect of IAS on native biodiversity and on natural and semi-natural habitats:
- affected biodiversity value
- impact on the affected biodiversity values
- present status and trend of the invasion
- invasive potential
Table 2: Measures of feasibility of control, probability of successful control or eradication
- invasion traits
- feasibility of control or eradication with available resources
- support for control or eradication action
- impact of control or eradication actions.
Each question was scored from 1 to 4 to allocate a final score to each species targeted. Several workshops with experts from all the archipelagos were organized, in order to standardize the attribution of scores. For each species, an average of the scores obtained in the different archipelagos was then calculated. The TOP 100 invasive species of European Macaronesia was determined among the 195 species under evaluation, and on the 100 most invasive species, 83 were plants.
For each species of the TOP 100, extensive information is provided on: morphology, distribution in the islands of European Macaronesia, habitats, general impacts on habitats and on other species, protected areas impacted, affected species and existing legislation.
The invasive alien plants included in the TOP 100 are listed below in the order of their scoring, with their origin, their occurrence in the EPPO region (checked against the EPPO and DAISIE databases), their general impacts on habitats and other species in European Macaronesia.
The following impacts were recorded and are indicated in the table as abbreviations (see brackets):
- on habitats:
- Changes in vegetation structure, or in the abundance of native or endemic species, or on the natural succession of native vegetation (structure, abundance, succession);
- Other changes in the environment such as: hydrology, nutrient dynamics, light availability, changes in salinity, pH (other changes);
- Alteration of the fire regime (fire regime);
- Alterations on geomorphology such as: erosion rate, sedimentation rate (geomorphology).
- on species:
- Competition for space and resources (competition)
- Impede or reduce the recruitment or the regeneration of endemic or native species (recruitment)
- Facilitate the success of other invasive species (facilitate invasion)
Invasive Alien Plants among the top 25:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Carpobrotus edulis (Aizoaceae)
(EPPO List of Invasive Alien Plants)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ageratina adenophora (Asteraceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ulex europaeus (Fabaceae)
|
W & C-Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Agave americana (Agavaceae)
|
Mexico
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Hedychium gardnerianum (Zingiberaceae)
|
India
|
Yes (only PT)
|
Geomorphology; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cyrtomium falcatum (Dryopteridaceae)
|
S-Af., Asia, Pacif.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Pittosporum undulatum (Pittosporaceae)
|
SW Aus.
|
Yes (only PT)
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Salpichroa origanifolia (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cytisus scoparius (Fabaceae)
|
S, C & C Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Delairea odorata (Astercaeae)
(EPPO Alert List)
|
S- Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Hydrangea macrophylla (Hydrangeaceae)
|
Asia
|
Yes
|
Geomorphology; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Nicotiana glauca (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Opuntia stricta (Cacataceae)
|
N & C Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Eschscholzia californica (Papaveraceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Adiantum raddianum (Adianthaceae)
|
C & S-Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Oxalis pes-caprae (Oxalidaceae)
(EPPO List of IAP)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Erigeron karvinskianus (Asteraceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Spartium junceum (Fabaceae)
|
S & W Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Pennisetum setaceum (Poaceae) (EPPO Alert List)
|
NE Afr.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Paraserianthes lophantha (Fabaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
Invasive alien plants in the top 26-75:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Conyza canadensis (Asteraceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Conyza bonariensis (Asteraceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Lantana camara (Verbenaceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Aptenia cordifolia (Aizoaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Solanum mauritianum (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Chasmanthe aethiopica (Iridaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Tetragonia tetragonoides (Aizoaceae)
|
Asia, Aus., S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cyathea cooperi (Cyatheaceae)
|
NW Aus.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Symphyotrichum subulatum (Asteraceae)
|
N, C & S Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ipomoea indica (Convolvulaceae)
|
Pantrop.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Tradescantia fluminensis (Commelinaceae)
|
Brasil
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Drosanthemum floribundum (Aizoaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Stenotaphrum secundatum (Poaceae)
|
W Af., Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ageratina riparia (Asteraceae)
|
Mexico
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Acacia melanoxylon (Fabaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Doodia caudata (Blechnaceae)
|
Aus.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Nassella neesiana (Poaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes (only ES)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Colocasia esculenta (Araceae)
|
Malaysia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Geomorphology; Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Anredera cordifolia (Basellaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Phytolacca americana (Phytolaccaceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Adiantum hispidulum (Adianthaceae)
|
SW Af.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Leycesteria formosa (Caprifoliaceae)
|
India, SW China
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cardiospermum grandiflorum (Sapindaceae)
|
Am., W India, Af.
|
Yes (only IT)
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)
|
Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae)
|
China
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion; Allelopathy
|
|
Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Centranthus ruber (Valerianaceae)
|
Medit.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Tropaeolum majus (Tropaeolaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pelargonium inquinans (Geraniaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only FR)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Opuntia tuna (Cactaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Gunnera tinctoria (Gunneraceae)
|
WS Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Phormium tenax (Hemerocallidaceae)
|
NZ
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Egeria densa (Hydrocharitaceae) (EPPO List of IAP)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (Asclepiadaceae)
|
Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Cytisus striatus (Fabaceae)
|
Iberia, N-Af.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Nicotiana paniculata (Solanaceae)
|
Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Cotula australis (Astercaeae)
|
Aus, NZ
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Crassula multicava (Crassulaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only ES)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Deparia petersenii (Dryopteridaceae)
|
Asia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Araujia sericifera (Asclepiadaceae) (EPPO Alert List)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition
|
Invasive alien plants in the top 76-100:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Cirsium vulgare (Asteraceae)
|
Eurasia, N-Af.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Solanum bonariense (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Crassula tillaea (Crassulaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Recruitment
|
|
Acacia saligna (Fabaceae)
|
Aus
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Solanum lycopersicum var. lycopersicum (Solanaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Nephrolepis cordifolia (Lomariopsidaceae)
|
Pantrop, Himal., Aus
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pennisetum clandestinum (Poaceae)
|
W-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Hedychium coronarium (Zingiberaceae)
|
SE Asia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Passiflora tripartita (Passifloraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Paspalum distichum (Poaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Coronopus didymus (Brassicaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Conyza floribunda (Asteraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pinus pinaster (Pinaceae)
|
S-Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Soleirolia soleirolii (Urticaceae)
|
Corse, Sardinia, Baleares
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Agapanthus praecox (Agapanthaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only UK)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae)
|
Asia
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Recruitment
|
|
Crocosmia x crocosmiflora (Iridaceae)
|
Hybrid
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Aloe vera (Aloaceae)
|
NE Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Leptospermum scoparium (Myrtaceae)
|
Aus, NZ
|
Yes (only UK)
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Ulex minor (Fabaceae)
|
W Eur.
|
Yes, ind
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Wigandia urens (Hydrophyllaceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
________
*: the species in indigenous at least in part of the EPPO region.The potential of invasiveness of 195 alien species (plants and animals) from European Macaronesia (Azores (PT), Madeira (PT) and the Islas Canarias (ES)) was assessed using two series of questions (table 1 & 2 below) about their noxiousness and feasibility of control:
Table 1: Measures of noxiousness, known and potential effect of IAS on native biodiversity and on natural and semi-natural habitats:
- affected biodiversity value
- impact on the affected biodiversity values
- present status and trend of the invasion
- invasive potential
Table 2: Measures of feasibility of control, probability of successful control or eradication
- invasion traits
- feasibility of control or eradication with available resources
- support for control or eradication action
- impact of control or eradication actions.
Each question was scored from 1 to 4 to allocate a final score to each species targeted. Several workshops with experts from all the archipelagos were organized, in order to standardize the attribution of scores. For each species, an average of the scores obtained in the different archipelagos was then calculated. The TOP 100 invasive species of European Macaronesia was determined among the 195 species under evaluation, and on the 100 most invasive species, 83 were plants.
For each species of the TOP 100, extensive information is provided on: morphology, distribution in the islands of European Macaronesia, habitats, general impacts on habitats and on other species, protected areas impacted, affected species and existing legislation.
The invasive alien plants included in the TOP 100 are listed below in the order of their scoring, with their origin, their occurrence in the EPPO region (checked against the EPPO and DAISIE databases), their general impacts on habitats and other species in European Macaronesia.
The following impacts were recorded and are indicated in the table as abbreviations (see brackets):
- on habitats:
- Changes in vegetation structure, or in the abundance of native or endemic species, or on the natural succession of native vegetation (structure, abundance, succession);
- Other changes in the environment such as: hydrology, nutrient dynamics, light availability, changes in salinity, pH (other changes);
- Alteration of the fire regime (fire regime);
- Alterations on geomorphology such as: erosion rate, sedimentation rate (geomorphology).
- on species:
- Competition for space and resources (competition)
- Impede or reduce the recruitment or the regeneration of endemic or native species (recruitment)
- Facilitate the success of other invasive species (facilitate invasion)
Invasive Alien Plants among the top 25:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Carpobrotus edulis (Aizoaceae)
(EPPO List of Invasive Alien Plants)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ageratina adenophora (Asteraceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ulex europaeus (Fabaceae)
|
W & C-Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Agave americana (Agavaceae)
|
Mexico
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Hedychium gardnerianum (Zingiberaceae)
|
India
|
Yes (only PT)
|
Geomorphology; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cyrtomium falcatum (Dryopteridaceae)
|
S-Af., Asia, Pacif.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Pittosporum undulatum (Pittosporaceae)
|
SW Aus.
|
Yes (only PT)
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Salpichroa origanifolia (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cytisus scoparius (Fabaceae)
|
S, C & C Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Delairea odorata (Astercaeae)
(EPPO Alert List)
|
S- Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Hydrangea macrophylla (Hydrangeaceae)
|
Asia
|
Yes
|
Geomorphology; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Nicotiana glauca (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Opuntia stricta (Cacataceae)
|
N & C Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Eschscholzia californica (Papaveraceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Adiantum raddianum (Adianthaceae)
|
C & S-Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Oxalis pes-caprae (Oxalidaceae)
(EPPO List of IAP)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Erigeron karvinskianus (Asteraceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Spartium junceum (Fabaceae)
|
S & W Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Pennisetum setaceum (Poaceae) (EPPO Alert List)
|
NE Afr.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Paraserianthes lophantha (Fabaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
Invasive alien plants in the top 26-75:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Conyza canadensis (Asteraceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Conyza bonariensis (Asteraceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Lantana camara (Verbenaceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Aptenia cordifolia (Aizoaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Solanum mauritianum (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Chasmanthe aethiopica (Iridaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Tetragonia tetragonoides (Aizoaceae)
|
Asia, Aus., S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cyathea cooperi (Cyatheaceae)
|
NW Aus.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Symphyotrichum subulatum (Asteraceae)
|
N, C & S Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ipomoea indica (Convolvulaceae)
|
Pantrop.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Tradescantia fluminensis (Commelinaceae)
|
Brasil
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Drosanthemum floribundum (Aizoaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Stenotaphrum secundatum (Poaceae)
|
W Af., Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ageratina riparia (Asteraceae)
|
Mexico
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Acacia melanoxylon (Fabaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Doodia caudata (Blechnaceae)
|
Aus.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Nassella neesiana (Poaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes (only ES)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Colocasia esculenta (Araceae)
|
Malaysia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Geomorphology; Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Anredera cordifolia (Basellaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Phytolacca americana (Phytolaccaceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Adiantum hispidulum (Adianthaceae)
|
SW Af.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Leycesteria formosa (Caprifoliaceae)
|
India, SW China
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cardiospermum grandiflorum (Sapindaceae)
|
Am., W India, Af.
|
Yes (only IT)
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)
|
Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae)
|
China
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion; Allelopathy
|
|
Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Centranthus ruber (Valerianaceae)
|
Medit.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Tropaeolum majus (Tropaeolaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pelargonium inquinans (Geraniaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only FR)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Opuntia tuna (Cactaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Gunnera tinctoria (Gunneraceae)
|
WS Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Phormium tenax (Hemerocallidaceae)
|
NZ
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Egeria densa (Hydrocharitaceae) (EPPO List of IAP)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (Asclepiadaceae)
|
Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Cytisus striatus (Fabaceae)
|
Iberia, N-Af.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Nicotiana paniculata (Solanaceae)
|
Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Cotula australis (Astercaeae)
|
Aus, NZ
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Crassula multicava (Crassulaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only ES)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Deparia petersenii (Dryopteridaceae)
|
Asia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Araujia sericifera (Asclepiadaceae) (EPPO Alert List)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition
|
Invasive alien plants in the top 76-100:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Cirsium vulgare (Asteraceae)
|
Eurasia, N-Af.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Solanum bonariense (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Crassula tillaea (Crassulaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Recruitment
|
|
Acacia saligna (Fabaceae)
|
Aus
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Solanum lycopersicum var. lycopersicum (Solanaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Nephrolepis cordifolia (Lomariopsidaceae)
|
Pantrop, Himal., Aus
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pennisetum clandestinum (Poaceae)
|
W-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Hedychium coronarium (Zingiberaceae)
|
SE Asia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Passiflora tripartita (Passifloraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Paspalum distichum (Poaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Coronopus didymus (Brassicaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Conyza floribunda (Asteraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pinus pinaster (Pinaceae)
|
S-Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Soleirolia soleirolii (Urticaceae)
|
Corse, Sardinia, Baleares
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Agapanthus praecox (Agapanthaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only UK)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae)
|
Asia
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Recruitment
|
|
Crocosmia x crocosmiflora (Iridaceae)
|
Hybrid
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Aloe vera (Aloaceae)
|
NE Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Leptospermum scoparium (Myrtaceae)
|
Aus, NZ
|
Yes (only UK)
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Ulex minor (Fabaceae)
|
W Eur.
|
Yes, ind
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Wigandia urens (Hydrophyllaceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
________
*: the species in indigenous at least in part of the EPPO region.The potential of invasiveness of 195 alien species (plants and animals) from European Macaronesia (Azores (PT), Madeira (PT) and the Islas Canarias (ES)) was assessed using two series of questions (table 1 & 2 below) about their noxiousness and feasibility of control:
Table 1: Measures of noxiousness, known and potential effect of IAS on native biodiversity and on natural and semi-natural habitats:
- affected biodiversity value
- impact on the affected biodiversity values
- present status and trend of the invasion
- invasive potential
Table 2: Measures of feasibility of control, probability of successful control or eradication
- invasion traits
- feasibility of control or eradication with available resources
- support for control or eradication action
- impact of control or eradication actions.
Each question was scored from 1 to 4 to allocate a final score to each species targeted. Several workshops with experts from all the archipelagos were organized, in order to standardize the attribution of scores. For each species, an average of the scores obtained in the different archipelagos was then calculated. The TOP 100 invasive species of European Macaronesia was determined among the 195 species under evaluation, and on the 100 most invasive species, 83 were plants.
For each species of the TOP 100, extensive information is provided on: morphology, distribution in the islands of European Macaronesia, habitats, general impacts on habitats and on other species, protected areas impacted, affected species and existing legislation.
The invasive alien plants included in the TOP 100 are listed below in the order of their scoring, with their origin, their occurrence in the EPPO region (checked against the EPPO and DAISIE databases), their general impacts on habitats and other species in European Macaronesia.
The following impacts were recorded and are indicated in the table as abbreviations (see brackets):
- on habitats:
- Changes in vegetation structure, or in the abundance of native or endemic species, or on the natural succession of native vegetation (structure, abundance, succession);
- Other changes in the environment such as: hydrology, nutrient dynamics, light availability, changes in salinity, pH (other changes);
- Alteration of the fire regime (fire regime);
- Alterations on geomorphology such as: erosion rate, sedimentation rate (geomorphology).
- on species:
- Competition for space and resources (competition)
- Impede or reduce the recruitment or the regeneration of endemic or native species (recruitment)
- Facilitate the success of other invasive species (facilitate invasion)
Invasive Alien Plants among the top 25:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Carpobrotus edulis (Aizoaceae)
(EPPO List of Invasive Alien Plants)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ageratina adenophora (Asteraceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ulex europaeus (Fabaceae)
|
W & C-Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Agave americana (Agavaceae)
|
Mexico
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Hedychium gardnerianum (Zingiberaceae)
|
India
|
Yes (only PT)
|
Geomorphology; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cyrtomium falcatum (Dryopteridaceae)
|
S-Af., Asia, Pacif.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Pittosporum undulatum (Pittosporaceae)
|
SW Aus.
|
Yes (only PT)
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Salpichroa origanifolia (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cytisus scoparius (Fabaceae)
|
S, C & C Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Delairea odorata (Astercaeae)
(EPPO Alert List)
|
S- Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Hydrangea macrophylla (Hydrangeaceae)
|
Asia
|
Yes
|
Geomorphology; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Nicotiana glauca (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Opuntia stricta (Cacataceae)
|
N & C Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Eschscholzia californica (Papaveraceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Adiantum raddianum (Adianthaceae)
|
C & S-Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Oxalis pes-caprae (Oxalidaceae)
(EPPO List of IAP)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Erigeron karvinskianus (Asteraceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Spartium junceum (Fabaceae)
|
S & W Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Pennisetum setaceum (Poaceae) (EPPO Alert List)
|
NE Afr.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Paraserianthes lophantha (Fabaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
Invasive alien plants in the top 26-75:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Conyza canadensis (Asteraceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Conyza bonariensis (Asteraceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Lantana camara (Verbenaceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Aptenia cordifolia (Aizoaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Solanum mauritianum (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Chasmanthe aethiopica (Iridaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Tetragonia tetragonoides (Aizoaceae)
|
Asia, Aus., S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cyathea cooperi (Cyatheaceae)
|
NW Aus.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Symphyotrichum subulatum (Asteraceae)
|
N, C & S Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ipomoea indica (Convolvulaceae)
|
Pantrop.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Tradescantia fluminensis (Commelinaceae)
|
Brasil
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Drosanthemum floribundum (Aizoaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Stenotaphrum secundatum (Poaceae)
|
W Af., Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ageratina riparia (Asteraceae)
|
Mexico
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Acacia melanoxylon (Fabaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Doodia caudata (Blechnaceae)
|
Aus.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Nassella neesiana (Poaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes (only ES)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Colocasia esculenta (Araceae)
|
Malaysia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Geomorphology; Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Anredera cordifolia (Basellaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Phytolacca americana (Phytolaccaceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Adiantum hispidulum (Adianthaceae)
|
SW Af.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Leycesteria formosa (Caprifoliaceae)
|
India, SW China
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cardiospermum grandiflorum (Sapindaceae)
|
Am., W India, Af.
|
Yes (only IT)
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)
|
Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae)
|
China
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion; Allelopathy
|
|
Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Centranthus ruber (Valerianaceae)
|
Medit.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Tropaeolum majus (Tropaeolaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pelargonium inquinans (Geraniaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only FR)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Opuntia tuna (Cactaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Gunnera tinctoria (Gunneraceae)
|
WS Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Phormium tenax (Hemerocallidaceae)
|
NZ
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Egeria densa (Hydrocharitaceae) (EPPO List of IAP)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (Asclepiadaceae)
|
Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Cytisus striatus (Fabaceae)
|
Iberia, N-Af.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Nicotiana paniculata (Solanaceae)
|
Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Cotula australis (Astercaeae)
|
Aus, NZ
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Crassula multicava (Crassulaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only ES)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Deparia petersenii (Dryopteridaceae)
|
Asia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Araujia sericifera (Asclepiadaceae) (EPPO Alert List)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition
|
Invasive alien plants in the top 76-100:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Cirsium vulgare (Asteraceae)
|
Eurasia, N-Af.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Solanum bonariense (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Crassula tillaea (Crassulaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Recruitment
|
|
Acacia saligna (Fabaceae)
|
Aus
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Solanum lycopersicum var. lycopersicum (Solanaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Nephrolepis cordifolia (Lomariopsidaceae)
|
Pantrop, Himal., Aus
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pennisetum clandestinum (Poaceae)
|
W-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Hedychium coronarium (Zingiberaceae)
|
SE Asia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Passiflora tripartita (Passifloraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Paspalum distichum (Poaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Coronopus didymus (Brassicaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Conyza floribunda (Asteraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pinus pinaster (Pinaceae)
|
S-Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Soleirolia soleirolii (Urticaceae)
|
Corse, Sardinia, Baleares
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Agapanthus praecox (Agapanthaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only UK)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae)
|
Asia
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Recruitment
|
|
Crocosmia x crocosmiflora (Iridaceae)
|
Hybrid
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Aloe vera (Aloaceae)
|
NE Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Leptospermum scoparium (Myrtaceae)
|
Aus, NZ
|
Yes (only UK)
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Ulex minor (Fabaceae)
|
W Eur.
|
Yes, ind
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Wigandia urens (Hydrophyllaceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
________
*: the species in indigenous at least in part of the EPPO region.The potential of invasiveness of 195 alien species (plants and animals) from European Macaronesia (Azores (PT), Madeira (PT) and the Islas Canarias (ES)) was assessed using two series of questions (table 1 & 2 below) about their noxiousness and feasibility of control:
Table 1: Measures of noxiousness, known and potential effect of IAS on native biodiversity and on natural and semi-natural habitats:
- affected biodiversity value
- impact on the affected biodiversity values
- present status and trend of the invasion
- invasive potential
Table 2: Measures of feasibility of control, probability of successful control or eradication
- invasion traits
- feasibility of control or eradication with available resources
- support for control or eradication action
- impact of control or eradication actions.
Each question was scored from 1 to 4 to allocate a final score to each species targeted. Several workshops with experts from all the archipelagos were organized, in order to standardize the attribution of scores. For each species, an average of the scores obtained in the different archipelagos was then calculated. The TOP 100 invasive species of European Macaronesia was determined among the 195 species under evaluation, and on the 100 most invasive species, 83 were plants.
For each species of the TOP 100, extensive information is provided on: morphology, distribution in the islands of European Macaronesia, habitats, general impacts on habitats and on other species, protected areas impacted, affected species and existing legislation.
The invasive alien plants included in the TOP 100 are listed below in the order of their scoring, with their origin, their occurrence in the EPPO region (checked against the EPPO and DAISIE databases), their general impacts on habitats and other species in European Macaronesia.
The following impacts were recorded and are indicated in the table as abbreviations (see brackets):
- on habitats:
- Changes in vegetation structure, or in the abundance of native or endemic species, or on the natural succession of native vegetation (structure, abundance, succession);
- Other changes in the environment such as: hydrology, nutrient dynamics, light availability, changes in salinity, pH (other changes);
- Alteration of the fire regime (fire regime);
- Alterations on geomorphology such as: erosion rate, sedimentation rate (geomorphology).
- on species:
- Competition for space and resources (competition)
- Impede or reduce the recruitment or the regeneration of endemic or native species (recruitment)
- Facilitate the success of other invasive species (facilitate invasion)
Invasive Alien Plants among the top 25:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Carpobrotus edulis (Aizoaceae)
(EPPO List of Invasive Alien Plants)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ageratina adenophora (Asteraceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ulex europaeus (Fabaceae)
|
W & C-Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Agave americana (Agavaceae)
|
Mexico
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Hedychium gardnerianum (Zingiberaceae)
|
India
|
Yes (only PT)
|
Geomorphology; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cyrtomium falcatum (Dryopteridaceae)
|
S-Af., Asia, Pacif.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Pittosporum undulatum (Pittosporaceae)
|
SW Aus.
|
Yes (only PT)
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Salpichroa origanifolia (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cytisus scoparius (Fabaceae)
|
S, C & C Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Delairea odorata (Astercaeae)
(EPPO Alert List)
|
S- Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Hydrangea macrophylla (Hydrangeaceae)
|
Asia
|
Yes
|
Geomorphology; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Nicotiana glauca (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Opuntia stricta (Cacataceae)
|
N & C Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Eschscholzia californica (Papaveraceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Adiantum raddianum (Adianthaceae)
|
C & S-Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Oxalis pes-caprae (Oxalidaceae)
(EPPO List of IAP)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Erigeron karvinskianus (Asteraceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Spartium junceum (Fabaceae)
|
S & W Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Pennisetum setaceum (Poaceae) (EPPO Alert List)
|
NE Afr.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Paraserianthes lophantha (Fabaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
Invasive alien plants in the top 26-75:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Conyza canadensis (Asteraceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Conyza bonariensis (Asteraceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Lantana camara (Verbenaceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Aptenia cordifolia (Aizoaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Solanum mauritianum (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Chasmanthe aethiopica (Iridaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Tetragonia tetragonoides (Aizoaceae)
|
Asia, Aus., S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cyathea cooperi (Cyatheaceae)
|
NW Aus.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Symphyotrichum subulatum (Asteraceae)
|
N, C & S Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ipomoea indica (Convolvulaceae)
|
Pantrop.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Tradescantia fluminensis (Commelinaceae)
|
Brasil
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Drosanthemum floribundum (Aizoaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Stenotaphrum secundatum (Poaceae)
|
W Af., Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ageratina riparia (Asteraceae)
|
Mexico
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Acacia melanoxylon (Fabaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Doodia caudata (Blechnaceae)
|
Aus.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Nassella neesiana (Poaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes (only ES)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Colocasia esculenta (Araceae)
|
Malaysia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Geomorphology; Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Anredera cordifolia (Basellaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Phytolacca americana (Phytolaccaceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Adiantum hispidulum (Adianthaceae)
|
SW Af.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Leycesteria formosa (Caprifoliaceae)
|
India, SW China
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cardiospermum grandiflorum (Sapindaceae)
|
Am., W India, Af.
|
Yes (only IT)
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)
|
Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae)
|
China
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion; Allelopathy
|
|
Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Centranthus ruber (Valerianaceae)
|
Medit.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Tropaeolum majus (Tropaeolaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pelargonium inquinans (Geraniaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only FR)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Opuntia tuna (Cactaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Gunnera tinctoria (Gunneraceae)
|
WS Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Phormium tenax (Hemerocallidaceae)
|
NZ
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Egeria densa (Hydrocharitaceae) (EPPO List of IAP)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (Asclepiadaceae)
|
Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Cytisus striatus (Fabaceae)
|
Iberia, N-Af.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Nicotiana paniculata (Solanaceae)
|
Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Cotula australis (Astercaeae)
|
Aus, NZ
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Crassula multicava (Crassulaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only ES)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Deparia petersenii (Dryopteridaceae)
|
Asia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Araujia sericifera (Asclepiadaceae) (EPPO Alert List)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition
|
Invasive alien plants in the top 76-100:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Cirsium vulgare (Asteraceae)
|
Eurasia, N-Af.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Solanum bonariense (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Crassula tillaea (Crassulaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Recruitment
|
|
Acacia saligna (Fabaceae)
|
Aus
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Solanum lycopersicum var. lycopersicum (Solanaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Nephrolepis cordifolia (Lomariopsidaceae)
|
Pantrop, Himal., Aus
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pennisetum clandestinum (Poaceae)
|
W-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Hedychium coronarium (Zingiberaceae)
|
SE Asia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Passiflora tripartita (Passifloraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Paspalum distichum (Poaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Coronopus didymus (Brassicaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Conyza floribunda (Asteraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pinus pinaster (Pinaceae)
|
S-Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Soleirolia soleirolii (Urticaceae)
|
Corse, Sardinia, Baleares
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Agapanthus praecox (Agapanthaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only UK)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae)
|
Asia
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Recruitment
|
|
Crocosmia x crocosmiflora (Iridaceae)
|
Hybrid
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Aloe vera (Aloaceae)
|
NE Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Leptospermum scoparium (Myrtaceae)
|
Aus, NZ
|
Yes (only UK)
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Ulex minor (Fabaceae)
|
W Eur.
|
Yes, ind
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Wigandia urens (Hydrophyllaceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
________
*: the species in indigenous at least in part of the EPPO region.The potential of invasiveness of 195 alien species (plants and animals) from European Macaronesia (Azores (PT), Madeira (PT) and the Islas Canarias (ES)) was assessed using two series of questions (table 1 & 2 below) about their noxiousness and feasibility of control:
Table 1: Measures of noxiousness, known and potential effect of IAS on native biodiversity and on natural and semi-natural habitats:
- affected biodiversity value
- impact on the affected biodiversity values
- present status and trend of the invasion
- invasive potential
Table 2: Measures of feasibility of control, probability of successful control or eradication
- invasion traits
- feasibility of control or eradication with available resources
- support for control or eradication action
- impact of control or eradication actions.
Each question was scored from 1 to 4 to allocate a final score to each species targeted. Several workshops with experts from all the archipelagos were organized, in order to standardize the attribution of scores. For each species, an average of the scores obtained in the different archipelagos was then calculated. The TOP 100 invasive species of European Macaronesia was determined among the 195 species under evaluation, and on the 100 most invasive species, 83 were plants.
For each species of the TOP 100, extensive information is provided on: morphology, distribution in the islands of European Macaronesia, habitats, general impacts on habitats and on other species, protected areas impacted, affected species and existing legislation.
The invasive alien plants included in the TOP 100 are listed below in the order of their scoring, with their origin, their occurrence in the EPPO region (checked against the EPPO and DAISIE databases), their general impacts on habitats and other species in European Macaronesia.
The following impacts were recorded and are indicated in the table as abbreviations (see brackets):
- on habitats:
- Changes in vegetation structure, or in the abundance of native or endemic species, or on the natural succession of native vegetation (structure, abundance, succession);
- Other changes in the environment such as: hydrology, nutrient dynamics, light availability, changes in salinity, pH (other changes);
- Alteration of the fire regime (fire regime);
- Alterations on geomorphology such as: erosion rate, sedimentation rate (geomorphology).
- on species:
- Competition for space and resources (competition)
- Impede or reduce the recruitment or the regeneration of endemic or native species (recruitment)
- Facilitate the success of other invasive species (facilitate invasion)
Invasive Alien Plants among the top 25:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Carpobrotus edulis (Aizoaceae)
(EPPO List of Invasive Alien Plants)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ageratina adenophora (Asteraceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ulex europaeus (Fabaceae)
|
W & C-Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Agave americana (Agavaceae)
|
Mexico
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Hedychium gardnerianum (Zingiberaceae)
|
India
|
Yes (only PT)
|
Geomorphology; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cyrtomium falcatum (Dryopteridaceae)
|
S-Af., Asia, Pacif.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Pittosporum undulatum (Pittosporaceae)
|
SW Aus.
|
Yes (only PT)
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Salpichroa origanifolia (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cytisus scoparius (Fabaceae)
|
S, C & C Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Delairea odorata (Astercaeae)
(EPPO Alert List)
|
S- Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Hydrangea macrophylla (Hydrangeaceae)
|
Asia
|
Yes
|
Geomorphology; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Nicotiana glauca (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Opuntia stricta (Cacataceae)
|
N & C Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Eschscholzia californica (Papaveraceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Adiantum raddianum (Adianthaceae)
|
C & S-Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Oxalis pes-caprae (Oxalidaceae)
(EPPO List of IAP)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Erigeron karvinskianus (Asteraceae)
|
C-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Spartium junceum (Fabaceae)
|
S & W Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Pennisetum setaceum (Poaceae) (EPPO Alert List)
|
NE Afr.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Paraserianthes lophantha (Fabaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
Invasive alien plants in the top 26-75:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Conyza canadensis (Asteraceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Conyza bonariensis (Asteraceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Lantana camara (Verbenaceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Aptenia cordifolia (Aizoaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Solanum mauritianum (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Chasmanthe aethiopica (Iridaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Tetragonia tetragonoides (Aizoaceae)
|
Asia, Aus., S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cyathea cooperi (Cyatheaceae)
|
NW Aus.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Symphyotrichum subulatum (Asteraceae)
|
N, C & S Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ipomoea indica (Convolvulaceae)
|
Pantrop.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Tradescantia fluminensis (Commelinaceae)
|
Brasil
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Drosanthemum floribundum (Aizoaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Stenotaphrum secundatum (Poaceae)
|
W Af., Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ageratina riparia (Asteraceae)
|
Mexico
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Acacia melanoxylon (Fabaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Doodia caudata (Blechnaceae)
|
Aus.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Nassella neesiana (Poaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes (only ES)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Colocasia esculenta (Araceae)
|
Malaysia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)
|
Aus.
|
Yes
|
Geomorphology; Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Anredera cordifolia (Basellaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Phytolacca americana (Phytolaccaceae)
|
N-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Adiantum hispidulum (Adianthaceae)
|
SW Af.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Leycesteria formosa (Caprifoliaceae)
|
India, SW China
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Cardiospermum grandiflorum (Sapindaceae)
|
Am., W India, Af.
|
Yes (only IT)
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)
|
Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment.
|
|
Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae)
|
China
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion; Allelopathy
|
|
Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Centranthus ruber (Valerianaceae)
|
Medit.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Tropaeolum majus (Tropaeolaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pelargonium inquinans (Geraniaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only FR)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Opuntia tuna (Cactaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Gunnera tinctoria (Gunneraceae)
|
WS Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Phormium tenax (Hemerocallidaceae)
|
NZ
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Egeria densa (Hydrocharitaceae) (EPPO List of IAP)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (Asclepiadaceae)
|
Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Cytisus striatus (Fabaceae)
|
Iberia, N-Af.
|
Yes
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Nicotiana paniculata (Solanaceae)
|
Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Cotula australis (Astercaeae)
|
Aus, NZ
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Crassula multicava (Crassulaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only ES)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Deparia petersenii (Dryopteridaceae)
|
Asia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Araujia sericifera (Asclepiadaceae) (EPPO Alert List)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition
|
Invasive alien plants in the top 76-100:
|
Species
|
Origin
|
EPPO
|
Impacts on habitats
|
Impacts on species
|
|
Cirsium vulgare (Asteraceae)
|
Eurasia, N-Af.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Solanum bonariense (Solanaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Crassula tillaea (Crassulaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Recruitment
|
|
Acacia saligna (Fabaceae)
|
Aus
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Solanum lycopersicum var. lycopersicum (Solanaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Nephrolepis cordifolia (Lomariopsidaceae)
|
Pantrop, Himal., Aus
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pennisetum clandestinum (Poaceae)
|
W-Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Hedychium coronarium (Zingiberaceae)
|
SE Asia
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Passiflora tripartita (Passifloraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
No
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Paspalum distichum (Poaceae)
|
Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Coronopus didymus (Brassicaceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition
|
|
Conyza floribunda (Asteraceae)
|
S-Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Pinus pinaster (Pinaceae)
|
S-Eur.
|
Yes*
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Soleirolia soleirolii (Urticaceae)
|
Corse, Sardinia, Baleares
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Agapanthus praecox (Agapanthaceae)
|
S-Af.
|
Yes (only UK)
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Duchesnea indica (Rosaceae)
|
Asia
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Recruitment
|
|
Crocosmia x crocosmiflora (Iridaceae)
|
Hybrid
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Aloe vera (Aloaceae)
|
NE Af.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Leptospermum scoparium (Myrtaceae)
|
Aus, NZ
|
Yes (only UK)
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
|
Ulex minor (Fabaceae)
|
W Eur.
|
Yes, ind
|
Fire regime; Structure, abundance, succession; Other changes
|
Competition; Recruitment; Facilitate invasion
|
|
Wigandia urens (Hydrophyllaceae)
|
C & S Am.
|
Yes
|
Structure, abundance, succession
|
Competition; Recruitment
|
________
*: the species in indigenous at least in part of the EPPO region.
Sources
Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe (DAISIE). http://www.europe-aliens.org/
Silva L, Ojeda Land E & Rodríguez Luengo JL (eds.) (2008) Invasive Terrestrial Flora & Fauna of Macaronesia. TOP 100 in Azores, Madeira and Canaries. ARENA, Ponta Delgada, 546 pp. http://www.uac.pt/~lsilva/Flora_e_Fauna.pdf